Massively parallel contiguity mapping

ABSTRACT

Contiguity information is important to achieving high-quality de novo assembly of mammalian genomes and the haplotype-resolved resequencing of human genomes. The methods described herein pursue cost-effective, massively parallel capture of contiguity information at different scales.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 61/438,935, filed Feb. 2, 2011, and U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 61/473,083, filed Apr. 7, 2011, the subject matter ofboth of which is hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers3U54AI057141-06S1880509 and 1R01HG006283-01, awarded by NationalInstitutes of Health. The government has certain rights in theinvention.

BACKGROUND

Over the last several years, massively parallel sequencing platformshave reduced the cost-per-base of DNA sequencing by several orders ofmagnitude (Shendure & Ji 2008). Of the “next-generation” technologiesthat are commercially available, nearly all rely on iterative cycles ofbiochemistry and imaging of dense arrays of sequencing features togenerate relatively short reads, i.e. “cyclic-array” methods (Shendureet al. 2005; Margulies et al. 2005; Drmanac et al. 2009; Braslaysky etal. 2003; Bentley et al. 2008). The broad dissemination of theseplatforms represents the culmination of decades of effort to developpractical alternatives to electrophoretic sequencing (Shendure et al.2004).

In the context of this success, many developing technologies have thepotential to improve the technical capability of what is alreadyfeasible today. Such improvements may be accomplished by furtherdevelopment of cyclic array methods, or through the maturation of otherpromising strategies such as nanopore sequencing (Branton et al. 2008),real-time observation of DNA synthesis (Eid et al. 2009) and sequencingby electron microscopy. Massively parallel sequencing platforms havealso given rise to several types of sequencing applications, includingresequencing, de novo assembly, exome sequencing (Ng et al. 2009),RNA-Seq (Mortazavi et al. 2008), ChIP-Seq (Johnson et al. 2007), andgenome-wide chromatin interaction mapping (Lieberman-Aiden et al. 2009;Duan et al. 2010).

Although DNA sequencing technology platforms have improved at a rapidpace, the cost of DNA sequencing remains prohibitive for some goals.Therefore, it is desired to produce methods related to DNA sequencingtechnology that not only improve the application of existing anddeveloping technology, but also reduce the cost.

SUMMARY

Short-read sequencing is limited with respect to resequencing ofsegmental duplications and structurally complex regions of the genome,the resolution of haplotype information, and the de novo assembly ofmammalian-sized genomes. Moreover, further reductions in thecost-per-base of sequencing will do little to address these limitations.Even as new approaches to DNA sequencing mature and surpass currenttechnology, technologies may continue to be limited in terms of thecontiguity information that they generate. Therefore, low-cost methodsfor obtaining contiguity information at different scales are providedherein.

In some embodiments, methods for capturing contiguity informationcomprising are provided herein. Such methods may include treating atarget DNA sequence with a transposase resulting in one or morefragmentation or insertion events; adding or inserting one or morerecognition sequences to the target DNA sequence (i) during thetransposase treatment of (ii) during a subsequent amplification;sequencing the treated DNA; and capturing contiguity information byidentifying target DNA sequences or recognition sequences having ashared property.

In one embodiment, the one or more fragmentation or insertion eventsresults in generation of a library of target nucleic acid moleculesderived from the target DNA. In such methods, the one or morerecognition sequences are one or more barcodes that are symmetricallytagged to sequences adjacent to each fragmentation or insertion eventand the shared property of the one or more barcodes is an identical orcomplimentary barcode sequence.

In another embodiment, the target DNA sequence comprises a set of targetDNA fragments. Such an embodiment may further include compartmentalizingthe target DNA fragments with emulsions or dilutions, generating two ormore compartments of target DNA fragments prior to or after treatingwith the transposase. In this embodiment, the one or more recognitionsequences are one or more compartment-specific barcodes, each of whichcorresponds to the one or more compartments generated in thecompartmentalizing step and the shared property of the one or moreprimer sequences is an identical compartment-specific barcode.

In another embodiment, the one or more recognition sequences is one ormore adaptor sequences that modify the ends of the target DNA sequenceor insert within the target DNA sequence. In such an embodiment, the oneor more adaptor sequences may be complementary to one or moresurface-bound primers. In some aspects, the transposase is bound to anucleic acid that is complementary to a second surface-bound primer.Further, such a method may include hybridizing the one or more adaptorsequences to the one or more surface bound primers. In some embodiments,the shared property is a constrained physical location, which may beindicated by an x,y coordinate on a flowcell, and the transposase isbound to a surface-bound recognition sequence to form a surface-boundtransposase complex. In some embodiments, treating the target DNAsequence comprises exposing a plurality of surface-bound transposasecomplexes to the target DNA sequence.

In some embodiments, methods of bisulfite sequencing are provided. Suchmethods may include performing in vitro transposition into target DNAmolecules with transposase complexes, each transposase complexcomprising a double stranded DNA transposase recognition sequence and asingle stranded DNA adaptor overhang having methylated cytosine (C)residues; subjecting transposed target DNA molecules to bisulfitetreatment; performing nucleic acid amplification; and sequencing theresulting nucleic acid library.

In other embodiments, methods for inferring chromosome conformation areprovided. Such methods may include cross-linking DNA within cells;isolating cross-linked DNA from cells; fragmenting the cross-linked DNA;end-modifying fragmented, cross-linked DNA molecules with an adaptorthat is complementary to or that corresponds to a first surface-boundprimer; e) hybridizing ends of the fragmented, end-modified target DNAmolecules to the first surface-bound primer; f) performing transpositionwith non-surface-bound transposase complexes, each non-surface-boundtransposase complex comprising a DNA transposase and one or moresequences corresponding to a second surface-bound primer; g) performingcluster amplification to produce clusters of clonally derived nucleicacids; h) sequencing clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids; and i)determining physical interactions between chromosomal positions byparing neighboring clusters together.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates high density, random, in vitro transposition ofdiscontinuous oligonucleotides enables the high efficiency conversion ofgenomic DNA into adaptor-flanked, shotgun fragments. Light grey area(1)=transposase; dark grey bars (2)=mosaic ends (ME); yellow & red (3a,3b)=asymmetrical 5′ overhangs; blue (4)=genomic DNA).

FIG. 2 is a histogram of fold-coverage with whole genome sequencing(x-axis=fold-coverage; y-axis=% of genome) of libraries from a malehuman generated by standard methods (‘sonication’) versus thetransposome method (‘transposase’), with autosomes (‘Aut.’) and sexchromosomes (‘Sex’) plotted separately.

FIG. 3 is a histogram of fragment sizes (x-axis=base-pairs;y-axis=counts) resulting from high-density, in vitro fragmentation witha synthetic, discontinuous transposon. The inset shows a model fortransposome occupancy consistent with a steric hindrance model for thesharp drop at ˜35 bp.

FIG. 4 shows in vitro, high-density insertion of transposomes withdegenerate, single-stranded “bubbles” (NB) to genomic DNA (dark gray,(1)) is followed by whole genome amplification (WGA) to resolve eachstrand of the degenerate stretch (to NA or B/B). Nicking (at medium graysites, (2)) and strand displacing polymerization completesfragmentation, but also leaves junctions symmetrically tagged with thesame barcode (A/A (shown) or B/B).

FIG. 5 shows independent reads derived from limited sequencing oftransposase-based shotgun libraries show enrichment for mapping at 9 bpintervals. This phenomenon is much more pronounced with ultra-low input(10 pg, arrow) relative to low input (50 ng, no arrow), reflectinggreater sampling of a lower number of discrete fragmentation events.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram, based on examples observed in real data,showing that read-pairs mapping to adjacent locations with 9 bp overlapsare likely to have derived from adjacent fragmentation events. Incomplexity-limited data based on a library derived from an‘ultra-low-input’ sample, chains of 4 to 6 locally derived read-pairsmay be identified that collectively span ˜1 Kb to ˜2 Kb.

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the expected N10, N50, N90 lengths of thetotal span (y-axis) of chains of read-pairs that are identified asresulting from a contiguous series of fragmentation events along thesame genomic DNA molecule, as a function of the efficiency ofidentifying individual ‘joins’ (x-axis, percentage; note transition inscale at 99%).

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram showing that emulsion PCR of a templateconsisting of common regions ((1), (2)) that flank a degenerate region(A) generates clonally barcoded beads. The common 3′ end of thebead-tethered strand (2) can itself serve as a primer in subsequentemulsion PCR reactions.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram showing HMW genomic DNA molecules (blue)that are subjected to in vitro fragmentation with transposomes bearingadaptors ((1), (2)) that are linked by hybridization of complementarysubsequences (brown). DNA densely interspersed with these linkedadaptors is then emulsified via microfluidics and subjected to emulsionPCR with primers bearing droplet-specific barcodes (A). Sequence readsfrom the same HMW genomic DNA fragment may be associated with the samebarcode in the final library.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram showing emulsions that can be used tosupport the clonal, isothermal, multiple displacement amplification ofHMW DNA (1). These are fused with droplets containing reagents for bothtransposome fragmentation and emulsion PCR with primers containingdroplet-specific barcodes (color scheme identical to FIGS. 8 & 9).

FIG. 11 is a graph showing a comparison of experimentally phasedassembly with population-based HapMap predictions by HapMap for the sameindividual for various LD values. In contrast with HapMap inferences,the experimentally phased haplotypes are derived by a method that is LDindependent, such that discrepancies predominantly reflect errors ininference-based haplotypes.

FIG. 12 illustrates the use of in situ transposition for facilitatingmethods related to optical sequencing. (A) Single templates arestretched out on a flowcell and fragmented to generate spatiallyseparated clusters at a physical distance proportional to their genomicdistance. (B) Randomly coiled DNA is fragmented at its ends to generateclusters that are spatially confined to the area beneath the coil. Readsfrom either end can be deconvolved by using two different sequencingprimers.

FIG. 13 illustrates representative images of a spatially separated“cluster pair” for raw images of a “cluster pair” over four cycles ofsequencing (A); and raw integrated basecalling intensities of the twotemplates over the four cycles (B).

FIG. 14 shows representative images of (A) 48.5 Kb lambda genomes thatwere stained with JOJO-1, tethered to a modified Illumina flowcell, andstretched with a 15V/cm electric field and (B) stretched DNA like thatin (A) that was treated with transposomes for 5 minutes at 55° C. andimaged again. Imaging was performed on an Illumina GA2x. Scale bars=20μm.

FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram illustrating pretreatment of the libraryto insert flowcell compatible adapters, without fragmentation, allowingfor multiple read pairs to be generated along the axis of the stretchedmolecule.

FIG. 16 illustrates high-density insertion of synthetic transposonscontaining single-stranded bubbles into genomic DNA. Lane 1=ladder (kb);Lane 232 unfragmented genomic DNA; Lane 3=post-insertion, post PCRmaterial.

FIG. 17 illustrates the construction of symmetrically tagged, 5′-to-5′linked transposon reagent.

FIG. 18 shows species matching expected size (194 bp) of symmetricallytagged, 5′-5′ adaptor (a) and size distribution of post-transposition,post-PCR fragment amplicons is consistent with ˜100-200 bp of genomicDNA and ˜200 bp of total adaptor/barcode (b).

FIG. 19 illustrates transposition and polymerase extension in a singlereaction volume with no intervening manipulations. Transposase drivesfragmentation. Polymerase drives gap closure via nick translation andlimited cycles of primer extension to append a barcode (A) bearingadaptor.

FIG. 20 illustrates transposition and polymerase extension in a singlereaction volume with no intervening manipulations yields products thatcan be recovered by PCR after column-cleanup. The primers used in thePCR correspond to sequences added during the extension step. Lane 1=100bp ladder; Lane 2=no genomic DNA (gDNA) control; Lane 3=50 gDNA input.

FIG. 21 illustrates two methods to generate shotgun HMW genomic DNAfragments with appropriate adaptors and 3′ ssDNA tails corresponding toflow-cell sequence.

FIG. 22 shows coverage of E. coli genome with reads derived from in situtransposition method. X-axis=genomic coordinates. Y-axis=number of reads(10 Kb bins).

FIG. 23 illustrates a Y-adaptor approach for library preparationaccording to some embodiments.

FIG. 24 illustrates the production of multiple displacing branchingrolling circle amplification and polony (i.e., polymerase colony)formation according to some embodiments.

FIG. 25 illustrates a method for direct sequencing of transposon bubblescontaining flowcell primers according to some embodiments.

FIG. 26 illustrates a method of transposon insertion using two of thesame adaptors in reverse orientation to maintain the resulting “bubble”structure followed by emulsification and amplification according to someembodiments.

FIG. 27 illustrates a transposon-modified fosmid library pool approachto sequencing by using unique barcodes or insertion sites withinrepetitive regions according to some embodiments.

FIG. 28 illustrates a method used to generate clusters on flowcell: Anycombination of the four arms could hybridize to the flowcell andgenerate a library. In this case, only two arms do.

FIG. 29 illustrates a method that uses “infinipair” to identifyinteractions between transcription factor binding sites. Cells may becross linked with formaldehyde subjected to ChIP to pull downDNA:protein complexes. Modified sequencing adaptors may be ligated ontothe complexes and used to generate infinipair clusters. The reads may beclustered using “infinipair” technology and used to match clusters.Identification of new cis and trans interactions may be identified usingpreviously described methods (16).

FIG. 30 illustrates a method using infinipair to model chromosomeconformation in small numbers of cells.

FIG. 31 illustrates a sample preparation for in situ libraryconstruction. a) Size-selected HMW genomic DNA is end repaired and thenligated to hairpin adapters containing uracil nucleotides near the loopregion. Blue and red indicate different priming sequences and eachtemplate molecule has a 50% chance of ligating to two different primersequences. Treatment of the ligation products with exonuclease III andVII removes unligated DNA molecules that have exposed 3′ or 5′ ends.Uracil-specific excision reagent (USER™) treatment excises the uracilbases to open the hairpins and generate a flowcell-ready library withsingle-stranded 3′-tails. b) The library is loaded on a standardIllumina flowcell and both ends are allowed to hybridize. A hyperactivetransposase is used to randomly fragment and insert common flowcelladapters in the HMW hybridized library to generate LMW cluster-readytemplates. After cluster generation, reads from either end can bedeconvolved by using the two different sequencing primers (shown in redand blue).

FIG. 32 shows nearest neighbor pairs that were within 1.5 um of eachother and 4,000 bp mapping distance were identified by comparing a) read1 against read 1, b) read 2 against read 2, c) read 1 against read 2,and d) read 2 against read 1. The three colors represent three differentsized libraries: blue=1 kb, green=2 kb, red=3 kb. The cumulative numberof cluster pairs is plotted against the numerically sorted mappingdistance for each pair.

FIG. 33 shows nearest neighbor cluster pair data for the 1, 2, and 3 kblibraries for different nearest neighbor searches. The white bars arethe total number of cluster pairs with <1.5 μm physical separation and<4000 bp mapping separation. The grey bars are the number of pairswithin the targeted size range for that library size (800-1200,1500-2300, and 2500-3500 bp, respectively). The colored bars are pairsthat are within the targeted size range and have reads on oppositestrands in opposite directions.

FIG. 34 is a series of data illustrating cluster separation in read 1and 2 according to one embodiment. a) Every cluster that had a nearestneighbor within 1.5 um and 4,000 bp mapping distance was identifiedwithin read 1 for the three libraries (blue=1 kb, green=2 kb, red=3 kb).The mapping distance is plotted against the cluster separation distanceand histograms along each axis are shown. Note that the native Illuminaimage processing software will not demarcate two clusters that arecloser than ˜0.9 μm. b) The nearest neighbors for every cluster in read1 was identified in read 2 and plotted as above.

FIG. 35 shows illustrative images of stretched DNA according to oneembodiment. (a) 48.5 kb lambda genomes were stained with JOJO-1,tethered to a modified Illumina flowcell, and stretched with a 15V/cmelectric field. Imaging was performed on an Illumina GA2x. (b) Thestretched DNA was then treated with transposomes for 5 minutes at 55° C.and imaged again. Scale bars=20 μm.

FIG. 36 shows the tn5mC-seq method and resulting methylation profilesaccording to one embodiment. (a) Tagmentation-based DNA-seq libraryconstruction. Genomic DNA is attacked by transposase homodimers loadedwith synthetic, discontinuous oligos (yellow, purple) that allow forfragmentation and adaptor incorporation in a single step. Subsequent PCRappends outer flowcell-compatible primers (pink, green). (b) tn5mC-seqlibrary construction. Loaded transposase attacks genomic DNA with asingle methylated adaptor (yellow). An oligo-replacement approachanneals a second methylated adaptor (purple) which is then subject togap-repair. Bisulfite treatment then converts unmethylated cytosine touracil (orange) followed by PCR to append outer flowcell-compatibleprimers (pink, green). Methylation is represented as black lollipops.(c) Coverage of cytosine positions genome-wide. >96% of Cs in all threecontexts are covered at least once. Slight decrease in CpG coverage isdue to reduced read alignment ability at regions with a high density ofmethylation. (d) Normalized methylated cytosine over total cytosinepositions in 10 kb windows across chromosome 12 (max set to 1.0), blackbox indicates centromere. (e) Normalized methylated CpG over total CpGresidues at annotated genic loci. Promoter is defined as 2 kb regionupstream of TSS. (f) Elevated CpG methylation levels in gene body(intron, exon) compared to intergenic regions.

FIG. 37 illustrates distribution of average raw quality score for allunmapping read 1's in the 3 kb library (a) and for all nearest neighbor(NN) pairs consisting of one E. coli and one unmapped read, the averageraw quality score for the unmapped read is shown in a histogram.

FIG. 38 illustrates the average raw quality score across all bases forread 1 (A) and read 2 (B) in the 3 kb library. Reads are those found innearest neighbor pairs that mapped to E. coli, separation<1.5 μm, andmapped between 2500 and 3500 bp.

FIG. 39 shows Plots of G_(surf) for the x,y and z components of theend-to-end vector

are shown for DNA tethered to a surface (a, b). (c) shows araphicillustration of what may be happening during cluster formation. When twoseed templates are localized in close proximity on the surface, ascluster amplification proceeds there is a local depletion of availablesurface primers. This forces the clusters to grow away from each other.During basecalling, the cluster centers are called at a x-y positionsthat do not coincide with the original seeding templates.

FIG. 40 is a schematic illustration of the in situ stretching processdescribed herein (a). One end of a HMW molecule was hybridized to asurface prior to the application of an electric field. While the fieldis applied, molecules with a free end are stretched in the direction ofthe current flow. The free end is then able to hybridize and sequencingproceeds as usual. (b) shows angles between clusters determined byselecting the cluster furthest from the positive electrode as thereference (r). The angle to the other cluster (oc) was then calculated.

FIG. 41 is a set of scatterplots showing mapping distance vs. physicalseparation for the 3 kb E. coli library in the absence of an appliedexternal electric field (a). For the points shown in the boxes,histograms of the relative angle (in radians) between pairs are shown onthe right. (b) shows the plots as in (a) but under-hybridization wasperformed in the presence of a 28 V/cm electric field. Cluster pairsthat were separated by at least 4.5 pixels appear to be aligned alongthe axis of the flowcell and parallel to the electric field (bottomright).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Methods of capturing contiguity information are provided herein. Thecontiguity information and the embodiments for receiving suchinformation may be used with any suitable traditional or secondgeneration DNA sequencing technology to improve the efficacy andaccuracy of the technology and related uses and applications; and toincrease its cost effectiveness. Suitable DNA sequencing technologiesthat may be used in accordance with the methods described herein mayinclude, but are not limited to, “cyclic-array” methods (e.g., 454pyrosequencing, Illumina Genome Analyzer, AB SOLiD, and HeliScope),nanopore sequencing methods, real-time observation of DNA synthesis,sequencing by electron microscopy, dideoxy termination andelectrophoresis, microelectrophoretic methods, sequencing byhybridization, and mass spectroscopy methods.

Many of these sequencing methods include several common proceduralconcepts to sequence a long strand of DNA (or “target DNA sequence”).First, the target DNA sequence is broken up into numerous small sequencefragments (or “DNA fragments”). This may be accomplished by treating thetarget DNA with a transposase. In some examples. the numerous DNAfragments may be considered to be a DNA fragment library (or “shotgunlibrary”). Next, the DNA fragments may be amplified or cloned, resultingin the generation of clonal copies or clusters. The clonal copies orclusters are then sequenced by a sequencing platform, such as thosedescribed above. After sequencing, the sequenced DNA fragments may bereassembled to reconstruct the original sequence, or mapped to areference genome to identify sequence variations.

Capturing Contiguity Information

As discussed above, when a target DNA sequence is treated withtransposase, the target DNA may be broken up into two or more DNAfragments that, prior to the transposase treatment (i.e., prior tofragmentation), were connected via one or more spatial relationships. Inone embodiment, the spatial relationship is an adjacent relationship,wherein the DNA fragments were directly adjacent to one another (i.e.,the end of one DNA fragment was connected to the end of a second DNAfragment). In another embodiment, the spatial relationship may be acompartmental relationship, wherein the target DNA comprises two or moresequence segments that are categorized as compartments. In such anembodiment, DNA fragments prior to fragmentation by transposase may havebeen within the same segment of the target DNA, but not necessarilyadjacent to one another. In another embodiment, the spatial relationshipis a distance relationship wherein the DNA fragments were non-contiguousand non-adjacent prior to fragmentation, but are related by a particulardistance or sequence length between each other. These spatialrelationships may be determined by capturing contiguity informationusing methods described herein.

Contiguity information refers to a spatial relationship between two ormore DNA fragments based on shared information. The shared aspect of theinformation can be with respect to adjacent, compartmental and distancespatial relationships. Information regarding these relationships in turnfacilitates hierarchical assembly or mapping of sequence reads derivedfrom the DNA fragments. This contiguity information improves theefficiency and accuracy of such assembly or mapping because traditionalassembly or mapping methods used in association with conventionalshotgun sequencing do not take into account the relative genomic originsor coordinates of the individual sequence reads as they relate to thespatial relationship between the two or more DNA fragments from whichthe individual sequence reads were derived. Therefore, according to theembodiments described herein, methods of capturing contiguityinformation may be accomplished by short range contiguity methods todetermine adjacent spatial relationships, mid-range contiguity methodsto determine compartmental spatial relationships, or long rangecontiguity methods to determine distance spatial relationships. Thesemethods facilitate the accuracy and quality of DNA sequence assembly ormapping, and may be used with any sequencing method, such as thosedescribed above.

According to the embodiments described herein, the methods for capturingcontiguity information may include treating a target DNA sequence with atransposase resulting in one or more fragmentation or inserting events.In some embodiments, this step results in the generation of a library ofshotgun nucleic acid molecules derived from the target DNA sequence. Inan alternative embodiment, the fragmentation or insertion even may beaccomplished by a Y adaptor approach as described below. The one or moretransposase molecules may be soluble free transposase or may beassociated with a surface-bound recognition sequence.

The target DNA, after treating with the transposase may comprise two ormore DNA fragments or a plurality of DNA fragments (also referred to as“the fragmented target DNA”) or may comprise an insertion sequence (“theinsertion target DNA”).

In some embodiments, the methods for capturing contiguity informationmay include a step of amplifying the DNA or shotgun library to generateclonal copies or clusters of reads. The amplification step may include,but is not limited to any suitable amplification method such as polony,emulsion PCR, and bridge PCR.

In some embodiments, after treatment with transposase or after asubsequent amplification, one or more recognition sequences may be addedto or inserted into the fragmented or insertion target DNA. The one ormore recognition sequences may include, but are not limited to, abarcode, a primer or an adaptor DNA sequence at the site of thefragmentation or insertion that tags the DNA fragment as unique withrespect to the adjacent, compartmental or distance spatial relationship.

After being tagged, the shotgun nucleic acid molecules may be sequencedusing a sequencing platform described above contiguity information iscaptured by identifying recognition sequences that have a sharedproperty. In some embodiments, the shared property is an identical orcomplementary barcode sequence. For example, read sequences of adjacentorigin may be identified via shared barcode sequences; or reads may bedefined by compartments based on shared compartment-specific barcodesderived from the same target DNA segment. In other embodiments, theshared property is a shared or constrained physical location, which maybe indicated by one or more x,y coordinates on a flowcell. A“constrained” physical location may refer to a close, identical, ornearly identical physical location or to a set of two or more physicallocations whose relative physical coordinates are correlated with therelative sequence coordinates on the target DNA sequence from which theDNA fragments were derived. For example, in methods relating tolong-range contiguity, in situ transposition into stretched, HMW genomicDNA on the surface of a sequencing flowcell is performed using adaptorsequences to obtain distance spatial relationships by identification ofthe constrained physical locations (i.e. the relative coordinates atwhich physically linked sequencing templates are immobilized) of theadaptor sequences, hybridized DNA fragments, or a combination thereof.Additional embodiments and details regarding capturing short-range,mid-range and long-range contiguity are described further below.

Short Range Contiguity.

To capture information on short-range contiguity, a modified scheme forin vitro transposition in which degenerate barcodes within synthetictransposons are used in methods to symmetrically and uniquely tagshotgun library molecules originating from each flank of any givenfragmentation event is provided, such that one can subsequently assignin silico “joins” between independent, adjacent-in-origin read-pairs.After sequencing the shotgun library and corresponding barcodes,adjacent fragmentation events can be identified via shared barcodesequences. Importantly, this strategy allows for the determination oflocal contiguity in a way that is almost completely independent of theprimary sequence content.

Mid-Range Contiguity.

Even with long, high accuracy Sanger reads, the hierarchical approach ofsequencing BAC clones was important to achieve a high quality referenceassembly of the human genome, particularly in segmentally duplicated andstructurally complex regions (Lander et al. 2001; Waterston et al. 2003;Waterston et al. 2002). Therefore, in some embodiments, methods thatenable the grouping of short (or “shotgun”) reads derived from the samefosmid/BAC-scale region of the genome (e.g., 20 to 200 Kb), to captureinformation for mid-range congruity are provided. These methods arediscussed in detail below in Example 2.

As described below and in Kitzman et al. (Kitzman et al. 2011), thisclass of information is sufficient to extensively haplotype-resolve anindividual human genome sequence. This mid-range contiguity informationmay also facilitate de novo genome assembly. For example, Gnerre et al.(Gnerre et al. 2010) recently described the de novo assembly of thehuman and mouse genomes to reasonably high quality using only short-readsequence data. This result, just as with the haplotype contiguityachieved by Kitzman et al. (Kitzman et al. 2011), required the use offosmid library construction in order to partition the genome into ˜40 Kbsegments. In these methods, emulsions are used to compartmentalize highmolecular weight (HMW) genomic DNA fragments, followed by emulsion PCRwith primers bearing droplet-specific barcodes. Upon recovery, ampliconsare tagged with barcodes that define groups of shotgun reads, with eachgroup derived from the same 20-200 Kb region. In preliminary workrelying on shotgun libraries derived from complex pools of fosmidclones, the sufficiency of this class of information to extensivelyhaplotype-resolve an individual human genome with next-generationsequencing is demonstrated below.

Similar to the recently reported “subassembly” strategy (Hiatt et al.2010), a long fragment library is converted to a population of nestedsub-libraries, and a tag sequence directs the in silico grouping ofshort reads that are derived from the same long fragment, therebyenabling the localized assembly of long fragment sequences, i.e.“subassembled” reads. Subassembly extends the utility of short-readsequencing platforms to applications that normally require or benefitfrom long reads, e.g. metagenomics and de novo genome assembly. However,the methods according to the embodiments described herein enablesubassembly over 20-200 Kb, rather than ˜1 Kb, regions as previouslydescribed.

Long-Range Contiguity.

High throughput methods that include massively parallel, short readsequencing technologies are inherently limited with respect to severalimportant goals, including the resequencing of segmental duplicationsand structurally complex regions of the human genome, the resolution ofhaplotype information in diploid and polyploidy genomes, and the de novoassembly of complex genomes. Further reductions in the cost-per-base ofsequencing will do little to advance these goals. Rather, what isrequired are equivalently parallel methods of obtaining contiguityinformation at different scales. For example, the fact that the originalde novo assemblies of the human and mouse genomes achieved a highquality (Lander et al. 2001; MSGC 2002), despite an order-of-magnitudeless sequence coverage than lower quality assemblies based on shortreads alone, is primarily a consequence of the inclusion of a broadspectrum of complementary sources of contiguity information, including:(a) long primary read lengths, (b) mate-paired reads from plasmids,fosmids, and BACs, (c) hierarchical clone-by-clone sequencing, and (d)genetic maps.

Although new approaches to DNA sequencing may continue to mature andsurpass current technology, the most cost-efficient technologies (interms of cost-per-base) may continue to be read-length limited.Therefore, contiguity information may be obtained, by supplementinglow-cost, short-read sequences with contiguity information obtained byother technologies described below. Examples of methods for obtainingcontiguity information in this way may include: 1) Long-range“mate-pair” protocols enable one to obtain read-pairs separated by acontrolled distance. However, all current in vitro protocols employ acircularization step, such that the method is only efficient atseparations of several kilobases. 2) Barcoding and sequencing of clonedilution pools (or their in vitro equivalent) can yield haplotypeinformation on a genome-wide scale. However, the resolution of themethod is limited to the types of fragments (e.g. fosmid) and number ofpools that one can efficiently process. 3) Optical mapping usingrestriction enzymes has been successful in generating long-rangecontiguity maps for de novo genome assembly (Schwartz et al. 1993; Zhouet al. 2007; Zhou et al. 2009). However, this process is limited byfalse positive and negative cut sites due to star activity andinefficient cleavage, necessitating multiple optical maps from the sameregion to generate a consensus map. Furthermore, the non-uniformdistribution of restriction enzyme recognition sites can limit theamount of useful information derived from repetitive or low complexityregions. 4) Optical sequencing on stretched single DNA molecules(non-fragmented) has yielded up to 3 bp of contiguous sequenceinformation from multiple locations along the same molecule (Ramanathanet al. 2004). Because reads are generated directly from singlemolecules, issues of sample quantity and PCR bias are largely avoided.

As described in Example 3 below, in situ library construction andoptical sequencing within the flow-cells of next-generation sequencinginstruments represent an improved and efficient path towards a singletechnology that simultaneously captures contiguity information andprimary sequence at diverse scales. The basic premise is to exploit thephysical properties of DNA (by random coiling or stretching ofhigh-molecular weight (HMW) DNA), in situ library construction (via invitro transposition of adaptors to HMW DNA within a flow-cell), and thefully developed aspects of an operationally-realized next-generationsequencing instrument (polony amplification, sequencing-by-synthesis,imaging and data-processing), to generate multiple spatially relatedreads whose physical separation is either known or can be inferred fromthe relative coordinates at which the reads originate on the flow-cell.In one approach, the random coil configuration adopted by DNA insolution is exploited to spatially confine the ends and generate tworeads within a confined surface area. In a related approach, opticalsequencing on stretched DNA molecules within a native flowcell may alsobe performed.

These approaches are discussed in detail below and, according to someembodiments, illustrate in vitro methods for long-distance mate-pairingthat are not dependent on any circularization step. Success in obtainingpaired-end reads from unstretched 2.7 Kb molecules is shown in FIG. 12b. Briefly, flowcell compatible adaptors (FCA1) were end-ligated tolinearized, double-stranded puc19. This template was introduced to aflowcell (Illumina) and single-stranded ends were allowed to hybridizeto the primer-coated surface. The templates were then treated in situwith transposase pre-loaded with FCA2 adaptors. Next, standard clusterPCR was performed, followed by sequencing-by-synthesis. Based on theprimers used and the known sequence of pUC19, the first 4 bp were likelyto be either AGCT or CGAG, depending on which end of the molecule theread was coming from. FIG. 13A (top) shows representative images of aspatially separated “cluster pair” for the first 4 cycles, and rawintegrated basecalling intensities for both templates is shown in FIG.13B (bottom). The observation of many such closely located pairs in anotherwise sparse field is consistent with a common origin from the endsof the same 2.7 Kb molecules. Further diluting the template stillproduced cluster pairs, strongly suggesting that these are not derivedfrom two different templates that happened to hybridize nearby. Also,only ˜20% of templates showed visible physical cluster separation (as inFIG. 13), while the remaining 80% of paired ends were co-localized andgave mixed reads. However, the proposed approach of using two differentsequencing primers will allow deconvolved mixed reads from suchimmediately co-localized cluster pairs into two separate reads.

In other embodiments, the in situ fragmentation of linearly stretched48.5 Kb DNA molecules is also demonstrated with transposomes. Briefly,flow-cells were cleaned using Piranha solution, treated with 2%3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), and loaded with JOJO-1 stainedlambda DNA. The flowcell was then loaded with 6M KCl and an electricfield of 15V/cm was applied at the input and output ports for 90 sec.Surfaces were imaged directly on an Illumina GA2 sequencer (FIG. 14A) todemonstrate that the ends of single 48.5 Kb molecules can be physicallystretched over ˜30 pixels. Surfaces were then treated in situ withtransposome and re-imaged (FIG. 14B). Individual molecules werefragmented in multiple locations, demonstrating the enzyme's ability tomaintain high activity even on surface-immobilized template. Thesemethods may also be used to incorporate flowing in the “lock-down”bridge prior to fragmentation, so that clusters may be generated at theends of long templates.

Based on the methods of short, mid-range and long-range contiguityembodiments described herein, several additional embodiments forcapturing contiguity are provided below.

According to some embodiments, methods for capturing contiguityinformation are provided. In one embodiment, such methods may includeconstructing a library of shotgun nucleic acid molecules derived fromtarget DNA wherein sequences adjacent to each fragmentation or insertionevent are symmetrically tagged with barcodes; sequencing the shotgunlibrary molecules and corresponding barcodes; and identifying sequencesof adjacent origin via shared barcode sequences.

In another embodiment, methods for capturing contiguity information mayinclude compartmentalizing target DNA fragments with emulsions ordilution; modifying target DNA fragments with transposase to insertprimer sequences, either before or after compartmentalization;performing nucleic acid amplification using primers bearingcompartment-specific barcodes; and sequencing the resulting library ofshotgun nucleic acid molecules derived from target DNA and correspondingbarcodes to define groups of shotgun sequence reads. In one aspect, thegroups of reads sharing barcodes are derived from the same highmolecular weight genomic DNA fragment.

In a further embodiment, methods for capturing contiguity informationmay include end-modifying target DNA molecules with an adaptorcorresponding to one surface-bound primer; hybridizing both ends of theend-modified target DNA molecules to the surface-bound primer with orwithout stretching; performing transposition with non-surface-boundtransposase complexes that include DNA transposase and sequencescorresponding to a second surface-bound primer; performing clusteramplification to produce clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids;sequencing clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids; and determiningwhether overlapping or closely located clusters are derived from ends ofthe same target DNA molecules. In one aspect, such a method includesend-modifying high molecular weight DNA molecules with an adaptorcorresponding to one flow cell primer; hybridizing both ends of theend-modified high molecular weight DNA molecules to a flowcell with orwithout stretching; performing in situ transposition with transposaseloaded with adaptors corresponding to a second flow cell primer;performing cluster PCR to produce visibly overlapping or closely locatedclusters; and determining whether overlapping or closely locatedclusters are derived from ends of the same high molecular weight DNAmolecule.

In another embodiment, methods for capturing contiguity information mayinclude modifying target DNA molecules with transposase to insertnucleic acid sequences corresponding to one or several surface-boundprimers; hybridizing the internally modified target DNA molecules to thesurface-bound primers with or without stretching; performing clusteramplification to produce clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids;sequencing clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids; and determiningwhether overlapping or closely located clusters are derived from thesame target DNA molecules. In one aspect, such a method includesmodifying high molecular weight genomic DNA with transposase to insertprimer sequences corresponding to one or two flow cell primers;hybridizing the internally modified high molecular weight DNA moleculesto a flowcell with or without stretching; performing cluster PCR toproduce visibly overlapping or closely located clusters; and determiningwhether overlapping or closely located clusters are derived from thesame high molecular weight DNA molecules as in FIG. 25.

In another embodiment, methods for capturing contiguity informationinclude steps of (a) generating a surface to which nucleic acidsequences are bound that include a double-stranded DNA sequencecorresponding to the recognition sequence of a DNA transposase; (b)assembling complexes comprising a DNA transposase bound to thesurface-bound recognition sequence; (c) exposing complexes to targetDNA, with or without stretching of the target DNA, and allowing forinternal modification of the target DNA by the surface-bound transposasecomplex; (d) performing cluster amplification to produce clusters ofclonally derived nucleic acids; (e) sequencing clusters of clonallyderived nucleic acids; and (f) determining whether overlapping orclosely located clusters are derived from the same target DNA molecule.In one aspect, an additional step may be included at any point beforestep (c) wherein target DNA is modified by exposure to non-surface-boundtransposase complexes that include DNA transposase and sequencescorresponding to a surface-bound primer. In another aspect, anadditional step after step (c) and before step (d) may be included,wherein target DNA is further modified by exposure to non-surface-boundtransposase complexes that include DNA transposase and sequencescorresponding to a surface-bound primer.

Applications of Sequencing Technologies

The methods of capturing contiguity information described herein areuseful in the improvement of uses and applications of the sequencingtechnologies described above. Suitable applications of DNA sequencingtechnologies that may be used in accordance with the methods describedherein may include, but are not limited to bisulfite sequencing fordetermining DNA methylation, resequencing, de novo assembly, exomesequencing, RNA-Seq, ChIP-Seq, inferring chromosome conformation andgenome-wide chromatin interaction mapping. In some embodiments, themethods for capturing contiguity information may be used with“cyclic-array” methods, for applications such as resequencing, de novoassembly, or both as described in detail in the Examples below.

Resequencing.

Resequencing human genomes has become relatively straightforward. Forexample, Bentley et al. (2008) sequenced the genome of a Yoruba male to˜40× coverage to identify ˜4 million SNPs on the Illumina GA platform(Branton et al. 2008), i.e. massively parallel sequencing-by-synthesison a dense array of unordered PCR colonies. Today, the Illumina HiSeqplatform is able to generate the same quantity of data (135 gigabases(Gb)) in 8 days across 7 sequencing lanes that each yield ˜100 millionmappable, paired-end, 100 bp reads (PE100). For an exemplar cost of$3,700 per lane, the estimated cost for ˜40× human genome resequencingis just over $25,000.

Furthermore, although short read lengths and modest raw accuracies arecompatible with the highly accurate resequencing of ˜94% of the humangenome, that these technologies continue to fall short in at least twoimportant ways. First, approximately 6% of the human genome consists ofgene-rich segmental duplications or structurally complex regions thatare prone to recurrent rearrangement. It is likely impossible touniquely map short sequencing reads within this space, and extremelychallenging to decipher complex structural variation. Second, currenttechnology for genome resequencing is almost completely blind tohaplotype, i.e., the phase with which polymorphisms along a singlechromosome occur. Haplotype information is extremely useful for studiesof gene-disease association, as well as for population genetic analyses.Neither of these deficiencies can be remedied by more sequencing withthe same technology. Rather, these deficiencies reflect fundamentallimitations of short-read sequencing.

De Novo Assembly.

In contrast with resequencing, there is still a long way to go withrespect to generating high-quality de novo assembly of mammalian genomesusing the same technologies. Generating 20 Gb, i.e. the ˜8× coverage(Sanger) used to assemble the 2.5 Gb mouse genome in 2002 (Waterston etal. 2002), is now possible on a single Illumina HiSeq lane (PE100,$3,700). However, even with ˜90× coverage, the best “next-generation” denovo assembly of the similarly complex human genome yields an N50 contiglength of 7.4 Kb, a N50 scaffold length of 446 Kb, and sequence coverageof just 87% of the genome (Li et al. 2010). Further increases incoverage with short-read data would likely only minimally improveassembly quality (Li et al. 2010). By comparison, the initial assemblyof the mouse genome, based on over an order of magnitude of less data,had an N50 contig length of 25.9 Kb, an N50 scaffold length of 18.6megabases (Mb), and sequence coverage of 95% of the genome (Waterston etal. 2002).

Bisulfite Sequencing.

Methods for bisulfite sequencing for measurement of DNA methylation areprovided herein. DNA methylation is a widespread epigenetic modificationthat plays a pivotal role in the regulation of the genomes of diverseorganisms. The most prevalent and widely studied form of DNA methylationin mammalian genomes occurs at the 5 carbon position of cytosineresidues, usually in the context of the CpG dinucleotide. Microarrays,and more recently massively parallel sequencing, have enabled theinterrogation of cytosine methylation (5mC) on a genome-wide scale(Zilberman and Henikoff 2007). However, the in vivo study of DNAmethylation and other epigenetic marks, e.g. in specific cell types oranatomical structures, is sharply limited by the relatively high amountof input material required for contemporary protocols.

Methods for genome-scale interrogation of methylation patterns includeseveral that are preceded by the enrichment of defined subsets of thegenome (Meissner et al. 2005; Down et al. 2008; Deng et al. 2009), e.g.,reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) (Meissner et al.2005) and anti-methylcytosine DNA immunoprecipitation followed bysequencing (MeDIP-seq) (Down et al. 2008). An advantage of such methodsis that they can be performed with limited quantities of starting DNA(Gu et al. 2011). However, they are constrained in that they are nottruly comprehensive. For example, the digestion-based RRBS methodinterrogates only ˜12% of CpGs, primarily in CpG islands (Harris et al.2010), with poor coverage of methylation in gene bodies (Ball et al.2009) and elsewhere. Furthermore, RRBS does not target cytosines in theCHG or CHH(H=A,C,T) contexts which have been shown to be methylated atelevated levels in the early stages of mammalian development (Lister etal. 2009).

The most comprehensive, highest resolution method for detecting 5mC iswhole genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) (Cokus et al. 2008; Lister etal. 2009; Harris et al. 2010). Treatment of genomic DNA with sodiumbisulfite chemically deaminates cytosines much more rapidly than 5mC,preferentially converting them to uracils (Clark et al. 1994). Withmassively parallel sequencing, these can be detected on a genome-widescale at single base-pair resolution. This approach has revealed complexand unexpected methylation patterns and variation, particularly in theCHG and CHH contexts. Furthermore, as the costs of massively parallelsequencing continue to fall, whole genome bisulfite sequencing isincreasingly affordable. However, WGBS is limited in that currentprotocols call for 5 micrograms of genomic DNA as input (Cokus et al.2008; Lister et al. 2009; Li et al. 2010), which is essentiallyprohibitive for many samples obtained in vivo.

In some embodiments, a transposase-based in vitro shotgun libraryconstruction (“tagmentation”) for whole genome bisulfite sequencing isadapted as described below. This method, referred to herein astn5mC-seq, enables a >100-fold reduction in starting material relativeto conventional protocols, such that highly complex bisulfite sequencinglibraries are generated from as little as 10 nanograms of input DNA, andample useful sequence from 1 nanogram of input DNA. tn5mC-seq isdemonstrated by sequencing the methylome of a human lymphoblastoid cellline to approximately 8.6× high quality coverage of each strand.

Further, methods for methylating discontinuous synthetic transposons areprovided that use a double stranded DNA portion of the Tn5 recognitionsequence as well as a single stranded DNA overhang containing eitheradaptor sequence 1 or 2 wherein all cytidine or cytosine residues aremethylated. In one embodiment, a nick translation step is performed.After the nick translation, the resulting transposition generatesadaptor flanked DNA fragments where each strand has both adaptors, oneof which is methylated. PCR is then performed on the nick translatedmaterial with an accepted lower efficiency of the unmethylated strand ofthe adaptor that was generated from the nick translation.

In another embodiment, the nick translation step is not performed andthe second adaptor is added later as described below. The fragmentlibrary is then subjected to bisulfite treatment to convert allunmethylated cytidines to uracil residues. The second adaptor is thenadded in one of two ways: (1) by adding an A-tail and then using aprimer containing poly-T and an adaptor overhang, or (2) by extending atemplate containing a 3′ blocked N6 (at bisulfite treated nucleotideratios) with a 5′ adaptor overhang that will be extended through fromthe 3′ end of the fragment. After addition of the second adaptor, PCRand sequencing is then performed. One advantage of this method is thatthe high efficiency of conversion of gDNA to adaptor modified fragmentswill allow for much less DNA to be used in the construction of librariesto be subjected to bisulfite treatment.

Briefly, the procedure is as follows. First, transposase with adaptorscontaining the dsDNA transposase recognition sequences are loaded withan ssDNA adaptor overhang in which all cytosine (C) residues aremethylated. Next, transposition into genomic DNA is performed,fragmenting the DNA and appending a methylated C, 5′ overhang adaptor.If nick translation is performed, the adaptor is extended to both endsof the molecule, however, the 3′ adaptor will not be methylated. Thelibrary is then subjected to bisulfite treatment to convert allunmethylated C residues to U residues. If nick translation was notperformed in the previous step, a second 3′ adaptor may be added by oneof two approaches: (i) DNA fragments are A-tailed, and the 3′ adaptor isappended to the fragments using a 3′ poly-T 5′ adaptor primer; or (ii)DNA fragments are allowed to extend on an oligo comprised of a 3′blocked N6 (at complementary bisulfite treated nucleotide composition)and a 5′ adaptor overhang. Finally, PCR is performed, followed bysequencing

According to other embodiments, the method of bisulfite sequencing mayinclude steps of (a) performing in vitro transposition into target DNAmolecules with transposase complexes that include double stranded DNAtransposase recognition sequences with a single stranded DNA adaptoroverhang having methylated cytosine residues; (b) subjecting modifiedtarget DNA molecules to bisulfite treatment; (c) performing nucleic acidamplification to produce a nucleic acid library; and (d) sequencing theresulting nucleic acid library. In some aspects, a second adaptor tonucleic acid fragments derived from target DNA after step (a) and beforestep (b), wherein the second adaptor is designed to facilitate nucleicacid amplification in step (c) may be incorporated. In other aspects, asecond adaptor to nucleic acid fragments derived from target DNA, afterstep (b) and before step (c), wherein the second adaptor is designed tofacilitate nucleic acid amplification in step (c).

In other embodiments, the method of bisulfite may include steps of (a)modifying double stranded DNA (dsDNA) transposase recognition sequenceswith a single stranded DNA (ssDNA) adaptor overhang having methylatedcytosine residues; (b) performing in vitro transposition withtransposase loaded with adaptors containing the modified dsDNAtransposase recognition sequences to generate a library of DNAfragments; (c) subjecting the library of DNA fragments to bisulfitetreatment; (d) performing a PCR method to amplify a target; and (c)sequencing the target. In some embodiments, an additional step of nicktranslation may be performed after step b) and before step (c). In otherembodiments, nick translation is not performed. In this case, a secondadaptor is added after step (c) and before step (d). The second adaptormay be added by (i) adding an adenosine (A) tail to the DNA fragmentsand appending a 3′ adaptor to the fragments using a 3′ poly-T 5′ adaptorprimer; or (ii) allowing the DNA fragments to extend on anoligonucleotide comprising a 3′ blocked N6 and a 5′ adaptor overhang.

Inferring Chromosome Conformation.

According to some embodiments, methods for inferring chromosomeconformation are provided. These methods may include cross-linking DNAwithin cells; isolating chromatin fibers; removing and digestingchromatin fragments; purifying chromatin DNA fragments; ligatingadaptors to chromatin DNA fragments, forming chromatin DNA fragmentcomplexes; and generating 3-dimensional models of chromosomal positionsby pairing neighboring clusters of chromatin DNA fragment complexes. Inone embodiment, the method may include steps of (a) cross-linking DNAwithin cells; (b) isolating cross-linked DNA from cells; (c) fragmentingthe cross-linked DNA; (d) end-modifying fragmented, cross-linked DNAmolecules with an adaptor corresponding to one surface-bound primer; (e)hybridizing ends of the fragmented, end-modified target DNA molecules tothe surface-bound primer; (f) performing transposition withnon-surface-bound transposase complexes that include DNA transposase andsequences corresponding to a second surface-bound primer; (g) performingcluster amplification to produce clusters of clonally derived nucleicacids; (h) sequencing clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids; and(i) determining physical interactions between chromosomal positions byparing neighboring clusters together. In some aspects, an isolatedcross-linked DNA may be part of a cross linked DNA-protein complex. Inthis case, the method for inferring chromosome further conformation mayadditionally include a step of enriching for one or more specific crosslinked DNA-protein complexes by immunoprecipitation after step (c) andbefore step (d).

In other embodiments, a method for identifying interactions betweentranscription factor binding sites is provided. Such a method mayinclude inducing a population of cells with a hormone;immunoprecipitating cells to isolate chromatin fibers; producingchromatin fragments by cross linking cells and breaking chromatinfibers; repairing ends of chromatin fragments and ligating ends toadaptors, producing chromatin complexes; generating clusterscorresponding to the chromatin complexes; and determining interactionsbetween chromosomal positions by paring neighboring clusters together.

The following examples are intended to illustrate various embodiments ofthe invention. As such, the specific embodiments discussed are not to beconstrued as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will beapparent to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes,and modifications may be made without departing from the scope ofinvention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are tobe included herein. Further, all references cited in the disclosure arehereby incorporated by reference in their entirety, as if fully setforth herein.

EXAMPLES

Several properties of in vitro transposition may be exploited to developultra-low-cost, massively parallel sequencing methods for capturingcontiguity information at diverse scales. First, modified Tn5transposomes attack DNA in vitro with high efficiency and at highdensity, in a reaction that catalyzes the insertion of common sequences,with or without fragmentation depending on whether the synthetictransposon is continuous or discontinuous. Second, the pattern oftransposome attack is relatively random with respect to sequencecontent. Third, degenerate subsequences, in addition to common adaptorsequences, may be readily included within the synthetic transposons.Fourth, in vitro transposition is inexpensive as a single volume,aqueous-phase, enzymatic reaction. Examples 1-3 are directed at thedevelopment of massively parallel methods that exploit in vitrotransposition to inform short-range, mid-range, and long-rangecontiguity, respectively. Example 4 is directed at the development ofmethods that exploit in vitro methylated transposition to capturecontiguity information. Example 5 is directed at the development ofmethods for measuring DNA-DNA and DNA-protein interactions withinsmaller populations of cells that exploit infinipair technology todirectly sequence multiple fragments off of immunoprecipitated DNA thathas been cross linked. Example 6 is directed at integrating thesemethods to demonstrate high quality de novo genome assembly andhaplotype-resolved genome resequencing.

General Approach

Contiguity Information is a Primary Goal.

The methods in the Examples described below address a “blind spot” inthe next-generation sequencing field. Specifically, the methods addressthe lack of ultra-low-cost methods to determine contiguity informationat broader scales.

These methods and their associated costs are dependent on the sequencingtechnology with which they are integrated, as this is the method bywhich the primary sequence coupled to the contiguity information isdecoded. The methods below are performed using a commercially available,cyclic-array platform (e.g., Illumina GA2x or HiSeq). However, all ofthe methods described herein may be integrated with other approaches toDNA sequencing, e.g. nanopore sequencing, other cyclic-array platforms.Broad compatibility will ensure that these methods can be combined withany technology that emerges as the best in terms of cost-per-base.

Materials and Methods

In Vitro Transposition for Capturing Contiguity Information.

Although Examples 1-6 are technically diverse, a common thread is theirreliance on high density, random, in vitro transposition as a novelmeans of physically shattering genomic DNA in creative ways thatfacilitate the recovery of contiguity information at different scales.The initial interest in this technology was based on its potentialutility for low-cost, low-input, in vitro preparation of shotgunlibraries. As shown in FIG. 1, a modified Tn5 transposase catalyzesfragmentation and adaptor incorporation in a single, 5 minute step. Inconventional in vitro transposition, inverted 19 bp mosaic-end (ME)sequences flanking transposon DNA are recognized by the transposase andform a stable homodimer synaptic complex in solution. This “transposome”inserts the transposon into target DNA. When applied for librarypreparation, the transposome is instead comprised of enzyme and free MEsequences with adaptor overhangs. Insertion of the discontinuoustransposon results in fragmentation via symmetrical insertion of the MEsequence with asymmetrical 5′ adaptor overhangs. PCR amplification withprimers complementary to the adaptors yields a shotgun fragment library.

To address concerns regarding insertion bias and library complexity,extensive comparisons were performed with traditional methods of invitro shotgun library construction (Adey et al. 2010). The analysisrevealed a slightly greater bias with respect to sequence content atfragmentation sites with the transposome-based method. However, this wasof negligible impact in terms of the coverage distribution during wholehuman genome resequencing (FIG. 2), and the methods exhibited equivalentG+C bias. Critically, it was noted that the complexities of transposomelibraries made from as little as 400 nanograms were equivalent to orgreater than the complexities of standard libraries made from muchlarger amounts of input DNA.

The library complexities observed with this method suggests that themass conversion efficiency of genomic DNA into adaptor-flanked libraryis high, as fragmentation events may be occurring in close successionalong any given stretch of genomic DNA in order to generatesequencing-compatible fragments of several hundred base-pairs. Indeed,in analyzing the distribution of fragment lengths resulting from thismethod, we observe a sharp decrease at ˜35 bp that is likely secondaryto steric hindrance from adjacent, attacking transposomes (FIG. 3). Evenwith a PCR-free version of the protocol (to avoid skewing the fragmentsize distribution), the data suggests that the bulk of adjacenttransposome reactions (>95%) are separated by 35 to 600 bp. Inprinciple, this high efficiency of mass conversion should translate intolow input requirements. Consistent with that, even with input as low as100 picograms (30 haploid equivalents of the human genome), obtaincomplex libraries may be obtained. At 10 picograms (3 haploidequivalents complexity begins to bottleneck, but millions of uniquelymapping read-pairs may be observed nonetheless.

Example 1 Short-Range Contiguity

1.A. Symmetrically and Uniquely Tagging Fragmentation Events

The fragmentation of genomic DNA, whether by mechanical or enzymaticmethods, results in a complete loss of information as to the pairing ofmolecules that derive from either side of any single “break”. Topreserve this information, a method was devised to associate a uniquebarcode with both ends of fragments derived from each break introducedby in vitro transposition (FIG. 4). In brief, transposase may be used tocatalyze in vitro insertion of synthetic transposons containing adegenerate single-stranded “bubble” flanked by nicking restrictionendonuclease site into very low amounts of genomic DNA, i.e., less than5 haploid human genome equivalents. In contrast with the approachdescribed in FIG. 1, the synthetic transposons are continuous,containing the 19 bp ME sequences along with two endonuclease nickingsites flanking a 25 bp degenerate sequence. Since the degenerate regionis not complementary between the top and bottom strands, asingle-stranded bubble is present, increasing flexibility to aid in theformation of a synaptic complex with two transposase monomers. Afterinserting these synthetic transposons to high density (every 35 to 600bp), a 9 bp lesion, resulting from the transposition mechanism, isrepaired via a gap-fill and ligation reaction.

The construct is then subjected to primase-based whole genomeamplification (pWGA), which resolves the bubbles at the degenerateregions while yielding a relatively uniform amplification (Li et al.2008). This material is then digested to completion by both nickingendonucleases, which introduce nicks on opposite strands flanking thedegenerate region. Finally, extension with a strand-displacingpolymerase fragments the target DNA, yielding molecules that terminatein an identical barcode sequence, i.e. symmetrical tagging. At thispoint, standard protocols (A-tailing, adaptor ligation, PCR) can beapplied for compatibility with massively parallelsequencing-by-synthesis. Separate reads can be used to access thebarcodes and primary sequence at each end of each library molecule.

The barcodes used herein should be unique to each fragmentation eventbecause they are derived from a 25 bp degenerate stretch and can be usedin silico to successively link strings of read-pairs derived fromadjacent transposome insertions. These “joins” are based on barcodesalone, thus they are entirely independent of the primary sequencecontent.

To test the feasibility of this approach, a synthetic transposoncontaining a single-stranded bubble with fixed, non-complementarysequences corresponding to two primers was designed (as shown in thefirst step of FIG. 4, but with fixed non-complementary sequences for A &B rather than degenerate sequences). These synthetic transposons wereloaded to EZ-Tn5 transposase and reacted with genomic DNA underappropriate conditions. After gap-fill and repair of the expected 9base-pair lesions resulting from transposition events, PCR with primerscorresponding to the non-complementary synthetic bubble sequencesyielded amplicons with a broad distribution of sizes ranging from ˜0.5to ˜3 Kb (FIG. 16). This experiment confirms that synthetic, contiguoustransposons containing single-stranded bubbles can be inserted withreasonable efficiency. To achieve a denser distribution of insertionsites, this method should be optimized. In particular, the efficiencywith which the transposase is loaded with synthetic transposons may beimproved. As the steric hindrance of adjacent, attacking transposasecomplexes puts an upper bound on insertion density (FIG. 3), a largemolar excess of properly loaded transposome complexes will likelyachieve a denser insertion distribution.

1.B. Evidence that Adjacent Events are Detectable

To evaluate whether adjacent fragmentation events are potentiallydetectable by sequencing, ˜2 million uniquely mapping read-pairs weremined from the sequencing of a transposome-fragmented shotgun libraryderived from 10 picograms of human genomic DNA (3 haploid equivalents).Because 9 bp duplication occurs at each end of each fragmentation event,molecules derived from either side of each event should map to thegenome with a 9 bp overlap. As a consequence, a clear increase in “read2” mapping locations was observed 9 bp from the “read 1” start-sites ofother read-pairs (FIG. 5). This signature was markedly more pronouncedin this ultra-low-input library as compared to libraries that weregenerated from larger amounts of starting material. Using this 9 bpoverlap as evidence for fragments originating from the same breakpoints,chains of 4 to 6 read-pairs were identified that were derived fromsuccessive, adjacent fragments that collectively span ˜1 Kb to ˜2 Kb(FIG. 6).

1.C. Method Development and Performance Parameters

The strategy described above (see 1.A) is one of several related methodsthat have been devised to (1) attain symmetrically and uniquely taggingfragmentation events and (2) successively link strings of sequenceread-pairs derived from adjacent transposome insertions by exploitingthese tags during analysis. An alternative approach for symmetricaltagging has also been developed, wherein individual transposases areloaded with symmetrically tagged but formally discontiguousoligonucleotides (or “oligos”), such that both tagging and fragmentationcan take place in a single step.

A method based on this alternative approach was devised to construct asymmetrically tagged, 5′-to-5′ linked transposon reagent (FIG. 17). Togenerate this reagent, two primers were linked, one of which contains a5′-5′ inverted adenine RNA moiety and a 3′ phosphate blocking group.Single-stranded ligation between the terminal RNA base with the 5′phosphorylated DNA base of the other oligonucleotide is carried out withT4 RNA ligase. The 5′-5′ linked primers are then hybridized to anoligonucleotide containing appropriate complementary sequences for bothprimers, a degenerate stretch to serve as the tag (e.g. 20 randomizednucleotides—shown in black in FIG. 17), and the 19 bp mosaic-end (ME)sequence recognized by the transposon. The first primer in the 5′-5′pair is extended while the other end is blocked by the 3′ phosphate.Next, T4 polynucleotide kinase (T4 PNK) is used to remove the 3′blocking phosphate and the second primer is extended with astrand-displacing polymerase. Each single molecule of the resultingspecies includes two oligonucleotides, linked 5′-to-5′ by the invertedadenine moiety, that are identical across the degenerate stretch andthat each terminate in the 19 bp mosaic-end (ME) sequence. Gel-basedpurification is used to remove extension byproducts, and thenappropriate oligonucleotides are hybridized to double-strand the MEsubsequences at each end. The resulting species are both symmetricallytagged at the single molecule level, and readily loadable to the Tn5transposase.

The 5′-5′ linked, symmetrically tagged transposon species wasconstructed as described. The full length product (194 bp) of saidtransposon, prior to gel purification to remove extension byproducts, isshown in FIG. 18 a, Successful fragmentation of genomic DNA with saidtransposon is shown in FIG. 18 b).

The success of this approach is dependent on at least two parameters:(1) Maintenance of library complexity. The chaining of read-pairsterminates when adjacent fragments on either end of a chain areundetectable in sequencing. For example, at the extreme, if 100% offragments derived from synthetic transposition were successfullysequenced along with corresponding tags, then in principle it would bepossible to chain from end-to-end of entire chromosomes. (2) Uniformityof representation: The extent of sequencing required to sample tags andprimary sequences from both ends of a large fraction of fragmentationevents is heavily dependent on library uniformity. Significant skewingof relative representation may require a correspondingly large amount ofsequencing to overcome. It is therefore important that such skewing beminimized.

Through simulation, the N10, N50, and N90 span of chained read-pairswere determined based on the empirical size distribution of transposomefragmentation (FIG. 3 above) and as a function of the fraction oftransposase-derived fragments that are successfully sequenced (which isin turn a function of sequencing depth and the above-describedperformance parameters). As shown in FIG. 7, contiguity rises sharply atefficiencies above 90%. At 95% efficiency, the N50 is 1.4 Kb and the N10is 4.7 Kb. At 99% efficiency, the N50 is 8 Kb, and the N10 is 24 Kb. At99.9% efficiency, the N50 is 71 Kb, and the N10 is 237 Kb.

An important aspect of this technology is that the in silico “joins”between independent read-pairs are almost completely independent of theprimary sequence content (as would largely be the case with conventionalde novo assembly, were it not confounded by the ubiquity of closelyrelated sequences). Rather, joins are based on the shared barcodesequences which result from the synthetic transposons that are used tosymmetrically tag fragmentation events. It is noted that 25 bp barcodes(which would only require a 25% increase in the amount of sequencingrelative to a PE100 run) are unlikely to be identical by chance, evenwhen sequencing millions of independent tags and allowing for areasonable edit distance. Furthermore, the expected 9 bp overlapsbetween primary sequences can serve as a “verification key” for correctjoins. Thus, the chance that coincidence or errors resulting inincorrect joins is very low.

This method may enable the equivalent of “strobe reads” (i.e., multiplesub-reads from a single, long contiguous fragment (Ritz et al. 2010)),while using a short-read technology. The gaps result when any givengenomic fragment along the chain is too long to be spanned by single-endor paired-end sequencing. The frequency and length distribution of gapsis a function of the read-length of the short-read technology with whichthis method is integrated. For example, assuming that: 1) genomicfragments are interrogated by paired-end, 100 bp reads (PE100); 2) aterminal overlap of 20 bp is sufficient to merge read-pairs sequencingthe same fragment from either end; 3) the fragmentationsize-distribution shown in FIG. 3 holds, then simulations show anaverage of 0.7 gaps per Kb, with gap sizes averaging 53±48 bp (less than5% of the overall scaffold length).

1.D. LoxP Insertion Via Transposase Followed by Cre Recombination

In another embodiment, the bacterial transposase Tn5 may be used toinsert a transposon containing the 34 bp directional LoxP site flankedby inverted mosaic end (ME) sequences as well as an internalbiotinylation and potentially alternate sequencing primers. Targetinsertion density is roughly one insertion event every 10 kilobases.

The resulting population of molecules has insertion events in the sameorder or in an inverted manner. Recombination with Cre recombinase willexcise a 10 kb circular stretch of DNA where two LoxP sites wereinserted in tandem in the same orientation. Where tandem LoxP sites areinverted, the 10 kb region will be inverted, yet the DNA will remainlinear. Finally, inter-strand LoxP sites will recombine and swap strandswhich will also result in linear DNA.

Linear molecules may then be digested using a plasmid safe exonuclease,leaving behind the circularized DNA resulting from recombination betweentwo tandem LoxP sites in the same orientation.

Circularized DNA may then be used for library preparation by any methodand the DNA flanking the LoxP transposons can be enriched for bystreptavidin bead pulldown. PCR followed by sequencing from eitherwithin the LoxP sites, or from the terminal ends of the molecules willyield ˜10 kb mate paired reads.

1.E. Y-Transposons

In another embodiment, a Y-adaptor approach (FIG. 23) may be used inplace of traditional transposase catalyzed adaptor insertion as a methodfor a library preparation where the resulting species are either A-B(50%), A-A (25%), or B-B (25%) where A and B are the two differentadaptors and only 50% of the molecules are viable for sequencing.

In this case, Tn5 may be loaded with oligonucleotides complementary forthe 19 bp mosaic end recognition sequence along with an extension ofcomplementarity to provide a higher melting temperature followed bynon-complementary single stranded DNA (ssDNA) adaptor overhangs of A andB′. Transposition will result in one of the adaptors (ME at the 3′ end)being directly linked with the other remaining bound via hybridization.

Non-displacing polymerization and nick-repair may result in moleculeswhere each insertion event can result in a viable sequencing amplicon.

An alternative embodiment involves a hairpin transposon containing a U(or other linker or targetable site for degradation or polymerasediscontinuity) that links the ends of Y-adaptors to prevent loss of theother strand due to melting as in FIG. 23.

1.F. Double-Bubble Barcode Transposons

In another embodiment, a synthetic transposon containing two degeneratebarcodes (on each strand) and two sets of primer sites as well asseveral restriction sites, can be inserted by high frequency intogenomic DNA as shown in the example below:

ES-SbfI/AsiSI-N1/N2-Barcode-X/Y-NotI-X/Y-Barcode-N1/N2-SbfI/AsiSI-ES

The resulting transposition and gap-repair followed by whole genomeamplification (WGA) resolves the degenerate regions. Digestion using theoutermost restriction sites (SbfI, AsiSI in the example above) followedby PCR using N1/N2 and overhanging flowcell primers will allow for asequencing run to associate the two degenerate barcodes within eachinserted transposon.

The other digestion in the middle of the transposon (NotI in the exampleabove) and amplification and sequencing from the X/Y as well as N1/N2gives the outer barcode sequences and intervening genomic DNA.

1.G. Subassembly with Transposase Inserted Barcodes

In another embodiment, a discontinuous transposon may be inserted whereeach loaded DNA sequence is comprised of an outer flowcell primer, adegenerate barcode, an inner sequencing primer, and the double strandedtransposase recognition sequence. The target insertion density may beevery 1 to 2 kb.

After transposition, a degenerate sequence primer with a sequencing orflowcell primer overhang can be used to anneal to different positionsalong the molecule and extended back to the terminating transposaseadded sequence under dilute template or, more likely, emulsionconditions.

Sequencing will allow barcode association with every read that comesfrom the degenerate primer extension that occurred throughout the longmolecule.

1.H. Mate-Pair (ssDNA Circularization) Transposase Based Library Prep

In another embodiment, a standard, barcoded transposase-based libraryprep with a fragment size of approximately 1 to 2 kb, wherein sizeselection may be required, may be used to form a mate pair library.

The large fragment barcoded transposase based library prep will besubject to PCR using 5′ phosphorylated flowcell (outermost) primers, inwhich one also has an internal biotin as well as a uracil near the 5′end.

The resulting PCR product will be circularized, followed by mechanicalshearing. The fragmented DNA is then denatured and circularized in asingle-stranded manner. The fragments containing the ends of the initialcircularization are selected for using a streptavidin coated bead. Thecircles are then made linear by digestion at the uracil which will flipout the molecule. Sequencing allows for mate pair reads from the ends ofthe original library, also preserving the barcode.

1.I. Transposon Modified Fosmid or Plasmid Library Pool Sequencing

In another embodiment, continuous, synthetic transposons may be insertedinto genomic DNA (gDNA), followed by gap repair. DNA is then sheared to40 kb (or roughly 5 kb) and used to make a complex fosmid library (orplasmid) library respectively. This will allow for repetitive regions ofthe genome to be broken up by transposons that either have uniquebarcodes, or are identified by their unique insertion site into therepetitive region (FIG. 27).

Briefly, synthetic, continuous transposons are inserted into genomic orhigh molecular weight DNA using in vitro transposition methods to adensity between 100 and 1000 base pairs (bp). Transposons are either allthe same, or contain unique barcodes. Lesions 9 bp in length that resultfrom the transposition mechanism are then repaired. Next, DNA is shearedto approximately ˜40 kb (or ˜5 kb) and a size selection is performed,followed by end-repair. Next, a complex fosmid (or plasmid) library isgenerated using the modified, sheared, and repaired DNA. Finally, fosmid(or plasmid) library pools are sequenced to provide phasing informationas well as information regarding transposon insertions that will allowfor differentiation between similar regions of the genome, using eitherunique barcodes and/or unique transposon insertion sites.

Example 2 Mid-Range Contiguity

2.A. Emulsion PCR with Droplet-Specific Barcodes

Emulsion PCR is well established, but the methods below require dropletscontaining reagents including primers with droplet-specific barcodes.These reagents can be generated through emulsion PCR of common sequencesflanking a degenerate subsequence, with recovery of products to micronscale beads (FIG. 8) (Dressman et al. 2003). Specifically, large numbersof clonally amplified beads (each bearing a presumably unique barcode)may be generated by emulsion PCR with limiting dilution, followed byenrichment of “amplified” beads by hybridization (Shendure et al. 2005).These beads can be emulsified again for use in the below methods.Inclusion of a single clonally amplified bead per droplet, along withappropriate design of common sequences and emulsion PCR primers willresult in the capture of barcoded amplicons to the beads themselves forconvenient recovery.

2.B. Barcoding of “Pre-Transposed” HMW Genomic DNA

In one embodiment (FIG. 9), transposomes are loaded with adaptorscontaining the transposase recognition sequence with 5′ ssDNA extensionsof two different subsequences with complementary termini. This resultsin HMW genomic DNA densely interspersed with linked adaptor sequences.These “pre-transposed” molecules are then compartmentalized to emulsionswith limiting dilution, using microfluidics to minimize shear andcontrol size while maintaining a high throughput of droplet production(Zeng et al. 2010). Emulsion PCR, with primers bearing droplet-specificbarcodes (2.A above), will amplify many fragments derived from the sameHMW molecule within each droplet. Sequence reads derived from the samedroplet will be associated with the same barcode in the final library,thereby facilitating the in silico grouping and localized assembly ofeach progenitor 20-200 Kb molecule.

2.C. Barcoding of “Pre-Amplified” HMW Genomic DNA

In another embodiment (FIG. 10), HMW DNA is directly compartmentalizedto emulsions, again using microfluidics to minimize shear, with reagentsthat support clonal, isothermal multiple displacement amplification(MDA) within droplets (Mazutis et al. 2009). These droplets will then befused (with a relatively straightforward and cost-effectivemicrofluidics device) with droplets containing standard transposomes aswell as reagents for emulsion PCR, using primers bearingdroplet-specific barcodes (2.A above). As with the previous embodimentdescribed above, recovery and sequencing of the resulting library caninterrogate both shotgun primary sequence and the barcode sequence oneach molecule, with the expectation that reads sharing the same barcodederive from the same progenitor 20-200 Kb molecule.

This method may be used in transposome fragmentation followed by PCRwithin a single emulsion. When a “single-step” method is used togenerate sequencing libraries from bacterial colonies, transposition maybe performed followed by PCR with no cleanup step. In some aspects, thetransposome reaction is diluted by addition of PCR reagents (Adey et al.2010). Notably, in this method it is the PCR polymerase that facilitatesthe repair of the 9 bp lesion resulting from transposition by nicktranslation. At a minimum, these data illustrate that the MDA dropletscan be fused with droplets supporting the transposome reaction, andthese could subsequently be fused with larger droplets containing PCRreagents and barcoded primers.

The same effective end-results may be achieved exclusively with in vitromethods. Each of the methods described herein (2.B, 2.C) are dependenton capturing transposome fragmentation products within each emulsiondroplet to a uniquely barcoded bead. In order for one of theseapproaches to be successful (for example, the approach described in2.C.; “barcoding” of “pre-amplified” HMW genomic DNA”), bothtransposase-based fragmentation and polymerase-based extension must takeplace within the same emulsion compartment, i.e. within the same buffer.Initial experiments have been focused on this specific step, and arebeing conducted in non-emulsion reaction volumes to facilitateoptimization (schematic in FIG. 19). Recently, this compatibility inselected buffers was demonstrated. In brief, a reaction volume wasprepared containing 50 ng of genomic DNA in Nextera HMW buffer, dNTPs,adaptors 1 & 2, loaded transposase, and PCR polymerase. Adaptors 1 & 2were designed to include both sequences complementary to the synthetictransposons, as well as unique sequences at their 5′ ends (P1 & P2). Thetransposase+extension reaction was carried out at 55 C for 5:00 tofacilitate transposition, followed immediately by a single round ofthermocycling to facilitate the nick translation and to append adaptors1 & 2 (72 C for 10:00, 95 C for 0:30, 62 C for 0:30, 72 C for 10:00).Reactions were subjected to column-based cleanup and then used astemplate in a PCR using only outer primers P1/P2. The resultingdistribution of amplicon sizes (FIG. 20) is consistent withtransposase-based fragmentation and polymerase extension taking place inthe same buffer, albeit with limited insertion density. This reactionmay be demonstrated it in the context of a water-in-oil emulsion,capture of extension products or beads loaded with barcodedoligonucleotides.

Mid-range contiguity information is likely sufficient to extensivelysupport haplotype resolution in the resequencing of an individual humangenome. To test this, a straightforward “short-cut” scheme wasimplemented by barcoding and sequencing complex pools of large-insert(fosmid) clones. Specifically, randomly sheared human genomic DNA (˜35Kb) was cloned from a single individual to yield a complex fosmidlibrary (>2×10̂6 clones). This library was then transformed to culturedE. coli. The resulting transformed E. Coli cultures were split into 115fractions, and selected for transformants. The initial transformationwas titrated to yield ˜5,000 clones per pool. Given the uniform insertsize of ˜35 Kb, this corresponds to ˜3% physical coverage of a diploidhuman genome per pool. Transposome fragmentation was then performed togenerate a barcoded library from each of the 115 pools. This library wassequenced across 18 lanes on the Illumina GA2x for a total of 120 Gb ofsequence (PE76 or PE101+barcode). A shotgun library from this sameindividual was also sequenced across 7 lanes on the Illumina HiSeq for atotal of 86 Gb of sequence (PE50), or 28-fold coverage of the haploidgenome. The latter data alone yielded 3.6 million SNP and indel calls,but as with all individual human genome sequences to date, these callsare blind to haplotype.

After deconvolving barcodes and mapping reads, the approximateboundaries of individual clones within each pool were easily identifiedby read-depth. A total of 538,009 clones (4678±1229 per pool) for ˜3×physical coverage of the diploid genome were identified. 98.6% of thegenome was covered by 1+ clones, and 93.6% by 3+ clones. Long outgrowthsof clone pools were avoided to minimize the impact of growth effects onrepresentation. This was successful, as on average 82% of clones perpool had read depth within one order of magnitude. Because each poolonly sparsely samples the genome as a whole, the rate of overlap, or‘clone-collision’ within any given pool is low. Therefore, short readsderived from each pool overwhelmingly represent alleles from only one ofthe two homologous chromosomes at any given location. Haploid genotypecalls from clones were assembled across all pools using aparsimony-maximization approach (Bansal & Bafna 2008). The resultinghaplotype assembly covered 93% of ascertained heterozygous SNPs, with anN50 of 386 Kb. Of all Ref Seq genes, 63% were entirely encompassed by asingle phased haplotype block, while 75% were at least half encompassedby a single block.

This phased assembly was compared to HapMap predictions for this sameindividual (FIG. 11). Within regions of exceptionally high LD (D′>0.90),a nearly perfect concordance with HapMap predictions was observed(>99.5% agreement). Because the sample chosen was not part of a trio,HapMap predictions rely upon LD between alleles to predict phase fromgenotype calls. Correspondingly, concordance was reduced to ˜71% in morehighly recombinogenic regions (D′<0.10), which includes the majority(66%) of pairwise SNP combinations. The haplotype-resolved resequencingof this genome is direct and experimental, and therefore completelyorthogonal to population-based measures such as LD and allele frequency.Consequently, this trend likely reflects errors on the part of HapMapphasing (Lecy et al. 2007).

In contrast with population-based inferential methods, directhaplotyping allows for phasing of rare alleles and structural variants,including at complex, duplicated loci (Kidd et al. 2008). For instance,in these data, clones containing a common inversion polymorphism onchromosome 7q11 were observed as well as clones containing a raredeletion polymorphism on chromosome 1p36. Similar approaches may be usedto leverage the unambiguous assignment of short sequence reads to 20-200Kb regions by the methods described herein. Whether relying on clones,or entirely in vitro, mid-range contiguity information facilitates thelong-range haplotype resolution of individual human genomes. Further,mid-range contiguity information may also facilitate the de novoassembly of large, complex genomes.

2.D. Emulsion Transposition with Bead-Immobilized Transposomes

In another embodiment, beads coated in a primer flanked, degenerate,monoclonal barcode oligonucleotide (or “oligo”) terminating in thedouble stranded DNA (dsDNA) transposase recognition sequence andbeginning with a flowcell primer may be emulsified with high molecularweight genomic DNA and free transposase. The bead-immobilized oligos andattack genomic DNA may be loaded within the emulsion the transposase.Resulting fragments are PCR ready and able to be sequenced along withtheir barcode. Barcode association can then be used to group reads thatcame from the same progenitor molecule.

This approach encompasses several variants. For example, many clonalcopies of a barcoded oligo ending in the mosaic end sequence (ME) areimmobilized at their 5′ ends on each bead. These beads may be generatedby emulsion PCR with 5′-biotinylated primers and a degenerate region, oralternatively a smaller set of barcoded oligos may be synthesized andimmobilized to the beads. A short oligo comprising the reversecomplement of ME (ME′) is present in the emulsion mix to supporttransposase loading. Alternatively, the ME′ may be annealed and loadedonto transposases prior to emulsification. Bead-bound oligos may bedesigned with an enzymatically cleavable moiety to allow the loadedtransposomes to diffuse within the droplet.

2.E. Emulsion Transposition and Bead Capture

In another embodiment, beads are coated by oligos with an internal,inverted base, thereby having two 3′ ends. On the bead-distal 3′ side ofthe inverted base is a primer site flanked, degenerate, monoclonalbarcode, and a fixed adaptor sequence (“N1 prime”). These are emulsifiedwith substrate (e.g., HMW gDNA) and transposase pre-loaded with oligos5′-N1-ME. Transposition then proceeds within each droplet, generatingfragments covalently linked to the 5′-N1-ME sequence. The mixture isthen heated, inactivating the transposase enzyme and denaturing thefragmented substrate. After slowly cooling, 5′-N1 flanked fragmentsgenerated by transposition anneal to the free ends of bead-bound oligos.Bead bound oligos are then extended using a thermostabile polymeraseeither present in each droplet, or after breaking the emulsion. Barcodeassociation is then used to group reads originating from the sameprogenitor molecule.

In an alternative approach, beads are coated in a primer flanked,degenerate, monoclonal barcode oligo. Then, a pool of random hexamers(DNA or LNA) having a 3′-blocking moiety is attached to the 3′ end ofeach bead-immobilized oligos by ssDNA or RNA ligase. Beads, substrate(e.g., HMW gDNA) and pre-loaded transposomes are then emulsified.Transposition results in fragments with covalently attached 5′ linkers.These fragments are denatured and allowed to anneal to the random 3′portion of the bead-bound oligos. The hybridized fragments are thenextended into the barcode either by polymerase present in each dropletor by breaking the emulsion and adding polymerase. Barcode associationis then used to group reads originating from the same progenitormolecule.

2.F. End Capture of Long Molecules Using Transposase and Emulsification

In another embodiment, long genomic DNA molecules with an adaptor B′ligated to the ends may be subject to transposon insertion of a bubbletransposon in which inverted adaptor A sequences make up the bubblewhich is flanked by transposon recognition sequences. The molecules maythen be emulsified where a portion of microreactions contain a largemolecule, a bead coated in a monoclonal degenerate barcode terminatingin adaptor B, and adaptor A. Performing PCR is then performed, whichresults in amplification of the outer most ends with the ligated Badaptors on the bead, appending the unique barcode.

After performing a subsequent PCR using the washed beads, the librarymay be sequenced and barcodes may be used to associate the two endsequences from each of the ends of the original long molecule,effectively creating a jumping library of whatever size the originallong molecules were.

2.G. T7 Promoter Insertion Via Transposase

In another embodiment, transposomes are loaded with a bubble structure,flanked by a T7 terminator to one side and a T7 promoter to the other.This structure is integrated into a substrate (e.g., HMW gDNA) by bulktransposition at a density of at least one integration per kilobase. Theresulting material is then emulsified with T7 RNA polymerase and withbeads containing monoclonal degenerate barcodes flanked by priming sitesand ending in sequence (X) complementary to the portion of theintegrated bubble structure preceding the T7 terminator. In vitrotranscription is carried out within each droplet, and the resulting RNAmolecules, ending in X′, hybridize to their bead-bound complementarysequences. Reverse transcription is then carried out to extend thebead-bound oligos, either within each droplet or after breaking theemulsion. Barcode association is then used to group reads originatingfrom the same progenitor molecule.

2.H. Extension of Emulsion PCR on Adaptor Bubble Inserted High MolecularWeight Fragments to Allow for Subassembly

In another embodiment, a transposon that forms a “bubble” may beinserted, wherein the bubble within the transposon includes two of thesame adaptors in reverse orientation. Using the same adaptors in reverseorientation maintains the “bubble” structure. Bubbles may be inserted ata frequency of approximately 1,000 bp.

As shown in FIG. 26, large fragments will then be emulsified where aportion of the microreactions will contain a single, long DNA fragment,a single bead coated in a primer bound via biotin at its 5′ end andconsisting of an outer primer, a degenerate barcode (monoclonal for eachbead), and the complement to the adaptor inserted via transposition.Multiple displacing PCR (MDPCR) then generates many copies extending outfrom each adaptor insertion site.

Emulsions are then broken and beads are pulled out. Transposition with asecond adaptor on a discontinuous transposon will occur at randomdistances away from the bead for each copy of the amplified fragment.Removal of non-bead bound products and amplification will produce alibrary in which all amplicons from a large fragment can be associatedwith one another. The library also retains the ability to use thesequence acquired by sequencing genomic DNA from the original barcodeadaptor as an anchor to associate reads where the paired read for alllocally associated reads can be used for subassembly, as they arise fromdifferent secondary (post emulsion PCR) transposition events.

2.1. Clonally Barcode-Tailed, Randomly Primed Amplification in NanoliterReactors

In another embodiment, beads are coated in primer sequences, ortemplates thereof, having a degenerate barcode monoclonal for each beadas well as a non-clonal, fully degenerate short kmer (k=5 to 9). Theseprimers are released by excision of the immobilized DNA oligo from thebead, or alternatively by in vitro transcription of the immobilized DNAoligo into RNA primers. Oligos immobilized on the beads are designedsuch that the resulting DNA or RNA primers are structured as follows:

5′-[common1]-[clonal barcode]-[common2]-[random_(—) k-mer]-3′OH

Bead-immobilized oligos may be prepared either by directly immobilizingthese full sequences (e.g., in sets of 96 different barcodes) to beads,or by emulsion PCR.

Beads thus constructed are emulsified with: (i) substrate DNA (e.g.,high molecular weight genomic DNA) at a target concentration of onesubstrate fragment per droplet, (ii) reagents for primerrelease/synthesis including, but not limited to, T7 RNAP and NTPs, anysuitable restriction enzyme, or uracil N-glycoslyase and DNAglycosylase-lyase, and (iii) reagents to support DNA polymerization fromthe cleaved/synthesized primers (e.g., phi29 or Bst DNA polymerase,dNTPs).

Following their release or synthesis, primers anneal by random primingto sites throughout the substrate molecule. The included DNA polymeraseextends the annealed primers along the template, resulting in multiple,randomly spaced dsDNA fragments containing at the 5′ end a tag clonal toa given droplet, and the 3′ end sequence derived from various pointsalong the substrate. In one aspect, the DNA poymerase has strong stranddisplacement activity (e.g., phi29 DNAP).

Following this DNA polymerization, the emulsion is broken. If RNAprimers were used, the barcode encoded in each primer is reversetranscribed into DNA by methods known in the art. Finally, the resultingfragments are subjected to a standard library construction technique(transposase-based or otherwise) and amplified using a left primerconsisting of common1 and a right primer corresponding to the adaptoradded by transposition or ligation. Barcode association can then be usedto group reads that came from the same progenitor molecule.

Example 3 Long-Range Contiguity

Methods for long-range contiguity, (e.g., 100 Kb-10 Mb) by in situtransposition into very HMW genomic DNA on the surface of a sequencingflowcell are developed using spatial information (i.e. the relativecoordinates at which physically linked sequencing templates areimmobilized), as opposed to capturing contiguity information to barcodesas described above.

Such methods are accomplished by (1) exploiting in situ transposition toobtain paired-end reads from arbitrarily large single DNA molecules, and(2) developing related methods whereby multiple reads along the fulllength of arbitrarily large single DNA molecules are obtained.

In one approach (FIG. 12 b), HMW DNA molecules may be end-modified withan adaptor (FCA1), but are then hybridized to the flowcell withoutstretching. Long DNA molecules typically adopt a random coilconfiguration in solution. One end hybridizes, while the other end isspatially confined to an area proportional to the square root of thecontour length of the template. This increases the probability that itwill also hybridize at a close or nearly identical physical location (ora “constrained” physical location). The immobilized templates are thensubjected to in situ transposition with transposomes loaded with hybridadaptors corresponding to the second flow cell primer (FCA2), but alsocontaining sequence corresponding to one of two possible sequencingprimers (p1 or p2). After cluster PCR, approximately ˜50% of theoriginal templates will likely produce two visibly overlapping orclosely located clusters that each contain shotgun sequence derived fromone or the other end of the very HMW molecule adjacent to either p1 orp2. Reads originating from p1/p2 with the same or closely locatedphysical coordinates are highly likely to have been derived from theends of the same very HMW molecule.

For this approach (FIG. 12 b), the molecules should have 3′single-stranded tails that are complementary to one of the flow-cellsequences (i.e. the cluster PCR primers). To achieve this, flow-celladaptor A (or B) may be appended to the ends of HMW DNA molecules insolution, and then inserting adaptor B (or A) via in situ transposition.In practice, two different species of the adaptor are needed for one ofthese steps, i.e. A1 and A2 (or B1 and B2). This is because clustersderived from fragments at either end of any given HMW DNA molecule willbe located in close proximity, with the potential to interfere with thesequencing of the other unless different sequencing primers are used.This can be achieved by using two different adaptors (i.e. A1 and A2 (orB1 and B2)) that both contain the flow-cell adaptor sequence (A (or B))but also contain unique sequence at their 3′ end to facilitate thedesign of distinct, non-cross-hybridizing sequencing primers. In oneembodiment, A1 and A2 were added to the ends of HMW DNA in solution, andB via transposition. This scheme enables the sequencing of the HMWmolecule ends (adjacent to A1 and A2), rather than the transpositionjunction (adjacent to B). The transposition junction necessarilyincludes the 19 bp mosaic end (ME) sequence, which complicates thedesign of two sequencing primers with distinct specificities. However,the alternative (sequencing through the 19 bp ME), would beunnecessarily wasteful.

It is noted that optical mapping is routinely used to analyze moleculesas long as 1 Mb. The system described herein may be applied to moleculesof similar lengths.

In another approach, optical sequencing on stretched single DNAmolecules has been shown to be capable of yielding up to 3 bp ofcontiguous sequence information from multiple locations along the samemolecule (Ramanathan et al. 2004). Since reads are generated directlyfrom single molecules, issues of sample quantity and PCR bias arelargely avoided. However, in order for this approach to be practical infacilitating de novo genome assembly, read-lengths must be significantlyimproved.

Here, in situ transposition may be used to facilitate methods related tooptical sequencing but with existing next-generation sequencinghardware, software, and reagents. In one approach (FIG. 12 a), a libraryof very HMW DNA molecules (10⁵-10⁷ bp) are end-modified with an adaptor(FCA1), hybridized to the surface of a primer-coated flowcell, andphysically stretched using an electric field. While the field is stillapplied, a second adaptor is flushed into the flowcell and allowed tohybridize (similar to (Geiss et al. 2008)). This locks down the free endof every template and holds it in a stretched position. Transposomespre-loaded with a second flowcell compatible adaptor (FCA2) can then beintroduced to randomly fragment the stretched molecules whilesimultaneously inserting these adaptors. The majority of fragments willreceive two FCA2 adaptors, except for the ends, which have both FCA1 andFCA2. Cluster PCR via these adaptors will only produce clusters at theends of the stretched molecule. In this way, we obtain spatiallyco-linear clusters that are known to be derived from the same parentmolecule and are related by the physical distance between the clusters.

3.A. Optical Sequencing & In Situ Library Construction

Optical mapping using restriction enzymes has been successful ingenerating long-range contiguity maps for genome assembly (Zhou et al.2009; Zhou et al. 2007; Lin et al. 1999; Lim et al. 2001; Lai et al.1999; Schwartz et al. 1993). However, this process is limited by falsepositive and negative cut sites due to star activity and inefficientcleavage, necessitating multiple optical maps from the same region togenerate a consensus map. The non-uniform distribution of restrictionenzyme recognition sites can also limit the amount of useful informationderived from repetitive or low complexity regions.

As discussed above, the relatively short read lengths associated withthe most cost-effective DNA sequencing technologies have limited thequality and completeness of de novo genome assembly as well as of humangenome sequencing. There are currently few or no robust methods thatcapture mid-range and long-range contiguity information at a throughputcommensurate with the current scale of massively parallel sequencing. Toaddress this limitation, an in situ library was constructed and opticalsequencing was performed on the flow-cells of currently availablenext-generation sequencing platforms. This produced an efficient methodof capturing both contiguity information and primary sequence with asingle technology by generating >30,000 E. coli paired-end readsseparated by 1, 2, or 3 kb using in situ library construction onstandard Illumina flow-cells.

Surface-mediated bridge PCR performs poorly for inserts >=1 kb whichlimits the Illumina platform's ability to generate native long pairedend reads from high molecular weight (HMW) DNA. To circumvent this, HMWDNA molecules constrained to a specific size-range are end-modified withtwo flowcell-compatible adaptor sequences (FCA1 and FCA2), each of whichcontains one of two possible priming sequencing primers (p1 or p2). Thetemplates are then hybridized to the flowcell surface under stationaryflow, during which they typically adopt a random coil configuration.When one template end hybridizes, it spatially confines the othertemplate end thereby increasing the probability that it will alsohybridize in close physical proximity. The immobilized templates aresubsequently subjected to in situ transposition with transposomes loadedwith hybrid adaptors corresponding to the second flow cell adaptor(FCB1). Without a transposition event, each template molecule containsonly one of the two required flowcell adaptors required to generate acluster. For templates that are transposed, this process generates twolow molecular weight (LMW) templates that are both capable of clusterformation and hybridized to the surface in close proximity. After bridgePCR amplification, 50% of the templates should produce two overlappingor closely located clusters that each contain shotgun sequence derivedfrom one or the other end of the HMW molecule. p1 is then serially usedto sequence one end and p2 to sequence the other end of the template,and reads originating from closely located physical coordinates arelikely to have been derived from the ends of the same HMW parentmolecule. In this way, the information provided by the spatialcoordinates at which clusters are generated to infer long-rangecontiguity. In a similar way, HMW DNA molecules that are tethered at oneend and stretched using flow or an electric field could be transposed insitu with appropriate adapters to generate multiple co-linear clustersderived from the same parent molecule.

Materials and Methods

Library synthesis. Genomic DNA from Eschericia coli type B cells wereobtained from USB (Part #14380) and physically sheared for 30 sec on aBioruptor (Diagenode). The DNA was then size selected on a 1% agarosegel run at 100V for 2 hours, purified (Qiagen QIAquick Gel ExtractionKit), and end-repaired (End-It, Epicentre). Hairpin adapters were selfannealed and then blunt-ligated using Fast-Link Ligase (Epicentre)overnight. Unligated genomic DNA and adapters were removed withtreatment by Exonuclease III (NEB) and VII (Epicentre). The moleculeswere then treated with Uracil-specific excision reagent (USER™) (NEB) togenerate single-stranded flow cell complementary 3′ tails.

Transposome Loading.

Synthetic DNA oligonucleotides containing transposase mosaic, primersites, and flowcell adapter sequence were obtained from IDT. Adapterswere annealed and loaded on the transposase (Tn5, Epicentre) by mixingand incubating at room temperature for 20 minutes.

In Situ Flowcell Library Construction and Sequencing.

A custom cluster generation protocol was written to accommodate templateand transposome loading on a standard Illumina Cluster Station. Theflowcell was first primed with hybridization buffer and then heated to96° C. at rate of 1° C./s. At 96° C. a standard Illumina sequencinglibrary was loaded into a separate lane as a control while the otherseven lanes received hybridization buffer. After a 2 min. incubation,the temperature was lowered to 65° C. at 0.05° C./s to hybridize thecontrol library. At this point, the tubing on the manifold for thecontrol lane was removed on both the input and output sides of theflowcell. The E. coli libraries were added to each lane at 15 μL/min for2.5 minutes, followed by slowly cooling the flowcell to 40° C. at 0.02°C./sec. After a 5 min. incubation, the flowcell was heated to 55° C. at1° C./s. Loaded transposomes were then added to the lanes containing E.coli at 15 μL/min. The flowcell was incubated at 55° C. for 5 minutes toallow transposition to take place and then cooled to 40° C. A newmanifold was then installed on the cluster station and Illuminawash/amplification buffer was injected across the entire flowcell. Firststrand synthesis was performed at 65° C. for 5 minutes and 74° C. for 5minutes using library-specific DNA polymerases. Standard human controllibraries were than hybridized to each E. coli lane as per themanufacturer's protocol. Clusters were generated with 35 cycles ofbridge amplification. Two separate single end 36 bp (SE36) reads wereobtained on an Illumina Genome Analyzer Iix with RTA 1.8 and SBS v5 asper the manufacturer's protocol.

Data Collection and Analysis.

The X-Y coordinates of every cluster from read 1 and read 2 wereextracted from the fastq files using a custom Perl script. This data wasused to calculate the image offsets using the normxcorr2 function inMATLAB and the X-Y coordinates for read 2 were corrected accordingly.Reads were then mapped separately to the E. coli genome using theBurrows-Wheeler Aligner (BWA) and the identities of neighboring clustersbetween read 1 and read 2 were determined using a custom Perl script.

Results

In Vitro and In Situ Library Construction and Sequencing.

An efficient approach for generating HMW DNA libraries containingsingle-stranded flowcell compatible 3′-tails is provided herein.Briefly, genomic DNA from Eschericia coli was physically sheared, sizeselected for 1, 2 or 3 kb size molecules, purified, and end-repaired.Hairpin adapters containing three uracil bases near the loop of thehairpin (FIG. 31 a) were self annealed and then blunt ligated to thesize-selected libraries. Unligated genomic DNA and adapters were removedwith treatment by Exonuclease III and VII to yield an enrichedpopulation of molecules with hairpin adapters on both ends. Themolecules were then treated with USER™ to open the hairpin loop andrelease single-stranded flow cell complementary 3′ tails. Both ends ofthe molecules were then hybridized to standard Illumina flowcellsurfaces using a slightly modified thermal cycling protocol. Tn5transposase loaded with flowcell-compatible adapters was added to theflowcell to randomly fragment and add adapters to the HMW moleculesthereby generating LMW sequencing-ready templates (FIG. 31 b). Each E.coli library was pooled with a human control library, loaded onto aseparate lane, and two separate single-end 36 bp reads (SE36) wereobtained on an Illumina GAIIx.

Reconstructing contiguity information. Table 1 below illustrates thedistribution of mapping reads for the 1, 2 and 3 kb librariesconstructed as described above.

TABLE 1 1 kb 1 kb >= 2 kb 2 kb >= 3 kb 3 kb >= no filter Q30 no filterQ30 no filter Q30 E. coli 4,532,112 3,428,616 (76%) 3,668,061 2,667,329(73%) 2,340,128 1,523,035 (65%) human 155,966 97,328 (62%) 794,123504,299 (64%) 5,370,959 4,883,197 (91%) adaptor/mosiac 44,189 23,563(53%) 34,801 16,581 (47%) 9,337 5,037 (54%) unmapping 6,269,729 780,191(12%) 5,930,170 565,338 (10%) 2,755,611 215,931 (8%) total 11,001,9964,329,698 (39%) 10,427,155 3,753,547 (36%) 10,476,035 6,627,200 (63%)

An average of 3.5M reads mapping to E. coli were obtained in each of thethree lanes (Table 1). The X-Y coordinates of the clusters in every tilewere used to calculate the spatial offset between read 1 and read 2 X-Ycoordinates. For each cluster mapped to E. coli in read 1 and read 2,its nearest physical E. coli mapping neighbor within 1.5 μm wasidentified within the same read and the mapping distances of all pairswere numerically ordered (FIG. 32 a and b). Table 2 below shows thenearest neighbor cluster pair data.

TABLE 2 Nearest neighbor cluster pair data for the 1, 2 and 3 kblibraries when E. coli reads are compared against E. coli reads. Theexpected size ranges were set at 800-1200, 1500-2300 and 2500-3500 bp,respectively. + within + reads NN pairs expected have Pairing <1.5 μmmapping opposite Ref. read read <4000 bp distance orientation 1 kb 1 14,952 1,206 1,060 2 kb 5,820 3,402 3,236 3 kb 3,464 2,424 2,334 1 kb 2 25,426 766 602 2 kb 2,276 870 794 3 kb 2,704 1,710 1,612 1 kb 1 2 33,39325,708 25,502 2 kb 36,656 32,653 32,457 3 kb 39,743 37,916 37,769 1 kb 21 33,256 25,305 25,117 2 kb 35,686 31,643 31,466 3 kb 39,204 37,35137,196 1 kb 1 1 + 2 38,256 26,894 26,544 2 kb 42,242 35,885 35,525 3 kb43,097 40,272 40,036 1 kb 2 2 + 1 38,597 26,894 25,708 2 kb 37,84132,438 32,192 3 kb 41,761 38,950 38,701 1 kb 1 + 2 2 + 1 29,676 23,02822,863 2 kb mutually exclusive 33,064 29,505 29,350 3 kb 35,701 34,08233,946

Between 766-3,402 cluster pairs with the expected mapping distance wereobserved for each library (FIG. 32 a and b). A low number of clusterpairs were seen within a single read because clusters often physicallyoverlap on the surface and IIlumina's image analysis software is unableto distinguish them. Plotting mapping distance as a function of physicalseparation (FIG. 34 a) revealed the default lower limit of resolutionbetween two clusters in a single read to be ˜0.94 μm.

The nearest-neighbor search was repeated by looking for cluster pairs<1.5 μm between reads 1 and 2. Up to 37,916 distinct cluster pairs wereidentified within the expected mapping separation range (Table 2; FIG.33 and FIG. 32 c and d). Of these, over 99% were cluster pairs that gavereads on opposite template strands going in the opposite direction,which is the is expected orientation based on the design of the in situlibrary preparation. With this approach of serially obtaining pairedreads, cluster pairs closer than 0.94 μm were clearly demarcated,including some that were almost completely overlapping (FIG. 34 b). Themean mapping separation for the cluster pair libraries was 946 bp, 1,770bp, and 2,995 bp for the 1, 2, and 3 kb libraries, respectively (FIG. 34b, top histogram). The 2 kb library was likely a little low due to awider size selection.

Separation distances were calculated based on a freely-jointed chainmodel of DNA tethered to a surface. Using a freely-jointed chain model,the free-space distribution function for the end-to-end vector of a DNAmolecule is Gaussian. It is described by the equation:

$\begin{matrix}{{G\left( {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r},\overset{\_}{r_{0}}} \right)} = {C_{0}^{({- \frac{3{({\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r} - \overset{\_}{r_{0}}})}^{2}}{2\; {bl}}})}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where L is the contour length, b is the Kuhn length (twice thepersistence length), and C₀ is a normalization constant. In the casewhere we have a surface at z=0 and the molecule starting at [0, 0, z₀],the distribution function becomes

G _(surf)(

₁[0,0,z ₀])=C ₀′(G(

₁[0,0,z ₀])−G(

₁[0,0,−z ₀]))  (2)

where C₀′ is a new normalization constant and the second term repesentsthe entropic repulsion from the surface. As z₀->0, the differencebecomes a derivative which gives

G _(surf)(

₁[0,0,0])=C ₀ ″r _(z) G(

₁[0,0,0])  (3)

where C₀″ is a normalization constant. Plots of G_(surf) for the x,y andz components of

are shown in FIGS. 39 a and 39 b.

The mode physical cluster separation for the 1 kb pairs was 0.44 μm andfor the 2 kb and 3 kb pairs it was 0.67 μm, with the tail of thedistribution showing some cluster pairs separated by >1.0 μm. Theseobserved physical separation distances between Infinipair reads are wassignificantly larger (3-4 fold) than expected (FIG. 39 a). For example,the mean physical distance between 3 kb cluster pairs was ˜1000 nm whichroughly corresponds to the contour length of the molecule. At least twopossible explanations were contemplated for this discrepancy: 1) theimage offsets are slightly off thereby giving rise to overestimates ofthe true physical distances, or 2) the large separation distances ariseas an artifact during cluster formation. To verify the offsets,histograms showing the distribution of angles between every cluster pairwere generated and the cumulative direction vector for all pairs wascalculated. One would expect a random distribution of angles betweenpairs if the images are properly aligned and a net zero vector sum; abias towards a subset of angles within a given tile or a non-zero vectorsum suggests the offsets are slightly off. This did not appear to be asignificant source of error. Therefore, these large separation distancesarise as an artifact during cluster formation. Therefore, this observeddiscrepancy arises due to the way in which the clusters were generatedon the flowcell (FIG. 39 c). If two cluster-capable molecules arehybridized within 50-100 nm of each other, there will be a highlylocalized depletion of available adapters between the templates duringthe initial cycles of bridge PCR. This effectively forces the clustersto grow away from each other. As a result, the X-Y coordinate of eachcluster will not accurately reflect the X-Y coordinate of the initialseed templates.

Using read 1 as a reference, the closest nearest neighbor was screenedfor from either read 1 and read 2 (FIG. 33). For pairs within theexpected mapping distance and in the correct orientation, fewer than 1%had a different nearest neighbor in the combined dataset, and thisobservation remained true when using read 2 as the reference. Applying amore restrictive filter that requires mutual exclusivity (i.e., thenearest neighbor of cluster A is B and that of B is A) reduces thenumber of candidate pairs by up to 10% but does not yield anysignificant gain in sensitivity. It is also noted that as the librarysize increases, a greater fraction of the total cluster pairs give riseto pairs within the target size range with reads in the correctorientation. This may be due to steric effects whereby larger moleculesoccupy larger volumes, and thereby prevent other molecules fromhybridizing to the surface nearby.

Although the number of related cluster pairs represented only accountsfor approximately 1% of the total reads mapping to E. coli, itdemonstrates that in situ transposition and library preparation istechnically feasible. At least two factors may contribute to the lowefficiency: 1) a low probability for DNA to adopt the appropriateconformation to favor both ends annealing to the surface; and 2)transposon insertion in close proximity to the ligated adaptor sequence.The 3D probability distribution for the end-to-end vector of a DNAmolecule with one end tethered to a surface indicates that the free endhas a much higher probability of being far away from the surface thanclose to it. This problem is exacerbated with increasing DNA length.When only one end hybridizes and the molecule undergoes transposition,it generates a singleton read and not have a related nearest neighbor.Further, factor (2) is evidenced by the finding of 9,294nearest-neighbor cluster pairs where read 1 mapped to E. coli and read 1mapped to transposase mosaic and/or flowcell adaptor sequence. Finetuning of the transposase concentration and incubation time may helpimprove this but it may be difficult to completely eliminate it.

Surprisingly, the majority of reads for all three libraries did not mapto human, E. coli, or adapter sequences (Table 1). The average qualityscore for the unmapping reads was typically low: only 8% had average rawquality scores>30 and 69% had the lowest possible average raw qualityscore of 2 (FIG. 37 a). When all reads were considered, and not justthose mapping to E. coli for nearest-neighbor proximity, 15.7% of thenearest neighbor pairs had one read mapping to E. coli and one unmappingread, and 6.8% had both mapped to E. coli. For the pairs that had oneunmapping read, only 6% of them had an unmapping read with an averageraw quality score>30 and 78% had the lowest possible raw quality score(FIG. 37 b). Although the source of these unmapping reads is not clear,they can largely be filtered out based solely on quality score alone.

In Situ Stretching and Tagging of HMW Molecules.

In an effort to improve the hybridization efficiency and explore furtherapplications of this sequencing paradigm, in situ stretching andfragmentation of HMW molecules was successfully performed withinIllumina flow cells. Briefly, flowcells were cleaned using Piranhasolution, treated with 2% 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), andloaded with JOJO-1 stained lambda DNA. The flowcell was then loaded with6M KCl and an electric field of 15V/cm was applied at the input andoutput ports for 90 sec. Surfaces were imaged directly on an IlluminaGA2 sequencer (FIG. 35 a) to demonstrate that the ends of single 48.5 Kbmolecules can be physically stretched over ˜40 pixels of imaging space.Surfaces were then treated in situ with transposome and re-imaged (FIG.35 b). Individual molecules were clearly fragmented in multiplelocations, demonstrating the enzyme's ability to maintain high activitylevels even on a surface-immobilized template. It should bestraightforward to build on these methods to incorporate flowing in the“lock-down” bridge prior to fragmentation on native flowcells, so thatclusters may be generated at the ends of long templates.

Using the 3 kb E. coli library described above, in situ stretching andsequencing of the ends of stretched molecules was also successfullyperformed within Illumina flow cells (FIG. 40 a). Template librarieswere loaded into a flow cell at 75° C. and the chamber was slowly cooledat 0.1° C./s to 55° C. Next, hybridization buffer containing 5×SSC and200 mM KCl was flowed into the chamber and a 28 V/cm electric field wasapplied for either 0 or 2 seconds. Wash buffer was then flushed throughthe chamber prior to in situ transposition and sequencing. In theabsence of an applied electric field, the angles between clusters in apair were randomly distributed and not correlated with the distancebetween the clusters. For cluster pairs that were separated by at least45 tenths of pixels (˜1.6 μm), 46% had angles (FIG. 40 b) between −π/4and π/4 with respect to the axis of current flow in the chamber (FIG. 41a). However, in the presence of the electric field, 78% of cluster pairsseparated by >45 tenths of pixels had angles within this range (FIG. 41b). This is strongly indicative that these pairs had at least one end ofthe molecule hybridized at the time the field was applied, at whichpoint the other end was stretched by the electric field before ithybridized to the surface. These results demonstrate that in situstretching and sequencing of HMW DNA can be accomplished within nativeflowcells.

Discussion

Diverse technologies currently exist for determining contiguityinformation on a variety of length scales, including optical mapping(Schwartz et al. 1993), stretching single molecules in nanochannels(Riehn et al. 20057), single chromosome sorting (Fan et al. 2011),long-read single molecule sequencing (Eid et al. 2009), large insertcloning (Kitzman et al. 2011), and transmission electron microscopy.However, all of these technologies remain prohibitive for widescale usedue to capital equipment costs or the expertise required forimplementation. In the experiments described above, it was successfullydemonstrated that in situ library preparation of HMW DNA moleculesenables the capture of long-range sequence information up to 3 kb aparton an existing sequencing platform. The method described herein mayovercome these limitations by taking advantage of existing sequencinghardware and single-step enzyme-based in situ library preparation.Further, the methods described have shown that paired-end sequencing canbe accomplished without circularization.

There are at least four factors that affect the generation of relatednearest neighbor clusters: 1) the production of a HMW library withuniform single-stranded flowcell compatible 3′ adapters, 2) thehybridization of both ends to the flowcell surface, 3) the uniform andnondestructive in situ transposition of bridged molecules, and 4) thegeneration of clusters that are largely overlapping. Control experimentssuggest that the aforementioned approach using hairpin adapters followedby Exo III/VII treatment is highly effective at eliminating any librarymolecules that do not have two hairpin adapters. Additional controlexperiments have shown that USER™ treatment is also very efficient aturacil excision for making adapters single stranded, suggesting that theinitial library construction is robust. Although it may be argued thathaving both ends of a molecule be situated near the surface is unfavoreddue to entropic arguments, it is more favorable than the circularizationof a same-length single molecule due to the fact that each end canhybridize to any one of thousands of flowcell adapters. There may alsobe ways to force both ends to be closer to the surface to improve thehybridization efficiency, such as with the use of tethered magneticbeads or an electric field. For the in situ transposition step, a rangeof transposase concentrations and incubation times were used to identifythe optimal balance between too little activity and too much activity,both of which result in a failure to generate clusters.

The effect on sequence quality of intentionally generating clusters thatare largely overlapping is harder to interrogate. For example, it may bethat when there are two cluster-ready templates hybridized on thesurface in close proximity that one of them will out-compete the otherduring bridge amplification, as often happens during conventional bulksolution PCR. This can be due to differences in sequence composition,melting temperature, length, and the stochasticity of polymerase bindingevents. In the method described herein, control of the final length ofthe related nearby templates has been limited after transposition (onecould be 200 bp and the other could be 800 bp). While it could a concernthat the clusters are too close together, this does not appear to be thecase here. In such a case, the quality scores would decrease withnearest neighbor cluster distance due to having fewer numbers ofmolecules within either cluster and/or the potential for mixed reads.Here, however, quality scores for read 2 were generally better than forread 1 and there does not appear to be a correlation between averagequality score and nearest neighbor cluster distance (FIG. 38).

Although the high background currently makes the approach impractical touse for de novo assembly, further improvements to the librarypreparation and in situ transposition methods mal lead to a concomitantimprovement in signal to noise. Ultimately in situ library preparationmethods may enable the generation of reads whose physical relationshipto one another on a flow cell is correlated with genomic distance,enabling the routine optical sequencing of multiple, ordered reads frommany single HMW molecules as described below.

3.B. Achieving Multiple In Situ Reads Per Single DNA Molecule

Stretching prior to in situ transposition offers a number of advantagesover the random-coil method. First, with stretching, the physicaldistance between co-linear clusters is expected to be directlyproportional to the distance between reads, rather than proportional tothe square root, thereby providing greater resolution. Second,stretching is more readily amenable to the second goal of this aim,which is to generate large numbers of independent reads along the fulllength of arbitrarily long single DNA molecules. In one scheme,diagrammed in FIG. 15, stretched single molecules are subjected to invitro transposition with synthetic, continuous transposons, containingthe 19 bp ME sequences that are connected by sequence that includes asingle-stranded bubble. This is similar to the first steps of thestrategy in FIG. 4, except that rather than degenerate sequences, eacharm of the bubble is corresponds to the forward or reverse sequences ofthe primers that coat the flowcell. Once these synthetic, continuoustransposons are inserted to high density (every 35 to 600 bp), thehighly interspersed single molecules are stretched on the flowcell withcurrent (without removal of the transposome complexes, such that thereis no need for repair of the 9 bp lesions). Assuming a modest efficiencyof hybridization and cluster PCR initiation from each bubble, this willlikely yield multiple sequencing reads along the length of eachstretched molecule.

The full area of each lane of the flow-cells that are used according tothe long-range contiguity method described above is 245,760 pixels inthe dimension of flow (2.5 cM) and 3,776 pixels in the orthogonaldimension. As lambda DNA (48.5 Kb) was stretched to ˜30 pixels, as manyas 400×1 Mb molecules may be stretched end-to-end along the full lane.At ˜ 1/20^(th) density, a single lane would be sufficient to support 14×physical coverage of a diploid human genome. For data analysis,published algorithms for optical mapping (Zhou et al. 2009; Zhou et al.2007; Lin et al. 1999; Lim et al. 2001; Lai et al. 1999; Schwartz et al.1993) may be used as well as previous experience in image analysis forsequencing applications (Shendure et al. 2005; Mitra et al. 2003). Suchanalysis may be performed directly from images, or alternatively fromplatform-generated sequence reads annotated with position-of-origininformation. The positional information can be correlated with sequencedata generated from co-linear or overlapping clusters.

The resulting data should be similar to that generated by optical maps,but has the following advantages:

-   -   1) Sequence reads represent data points that have much greater        information content than restriction enzyme sites for both de        novo assembly and haplotype resolution;    -   2) Issues that impact optical mapping such as restriction enzyme        star activity and incomplete digestion will not occur with this        approach; and    -   3) The positions of data points along the length of stretched        DNA molecules will be random, rather than dependent on the        restriction enzyme cut-site distribution.

The effect of extra templates hybridizing near to the stretched orcoiled templates (which can confound the interpretation of the physicalcoordinates) can be mitigated by size-restricting the single DNAmolecule populations and/or tuning template concentrations. However,these methods can be implemented without major sacrifices to clusterdensity, as the sequencing should be as dense as would normally be thecase on the same platform.

To generate HMW DNA with single-stranded tails corresponding to A1 andA2 appended to each end, two strategies are pursued. In the first (FIG.21, left), genomic DNA is physically sheared (e.g. with HydroShear), andthen end-repaired, A-tailed, and ligated to adaptor sequencescorresponding to A1 and A2. The library is then PCR amplified usingprimers corresponding to A1 and A2 in which all thymine bases arereplaced by uracil. Post-PCR treatment with USER™ is expected to yieldthe desired 3′ single-stranded, flow-cell compatible tails flanking thedouble-stranded HMW DNA molecule. One advantage of this approach is thatself-complementarity of end-sequences is expected to limit accumulationof A1-A1 and A2-A2 products, whereas a disadvantage is that it may notbe practical for HMW fragment sizes that are largely incompatible withPCR, i.e. >10 Kb. As an alternative, libraries were generated in whichA1 and A2 adaptors containing single-stranded, flow-cell compatibletails are directly ligated to blunt-end or restriction digested HMWgenomic DNA (FIG. 21, right). An advantage of this method is that it isindependent of the length of the HMW molecules. However, only 50% ofproducts will be A1-A2 flanked (with the remainder either A1-A1 orA2-A2).

Both library preparation methods shown in FIG. 21 were applied togenerate adaptor A (A1/A2) flanked shotgun HMW molecules from E. coligenomic DNA. Then, transposase loaded with synthetic transposons thatinclude adaptor B for in situ fragmentation on the flow-cell surface(i.e. the method shown in FIG. 12 b) was used.

The results showed that in situ transposition may be successfullyperformed to introduce adaptor B into shotgun, A1/A2 adaptor-flanked HMWgenomic DNA molecules that are pre-hybridized to the flow-cell. This isan improvement over the experiment described above and in FIG. 13, whichinvolved only a single puc19 fragment. Mapping density across the E.coli genome of a representative experiment is shown in FIG. 22. Thedistribution is largely uniform, indicating that introduction of acluster PCR compatible adaptor via in situ transposition does not resultin overt biases in genomic representation.

Further, the conversion of library molecules into useful sequencingtemplates is currently quite inefficient. The data shown in FIG. 22 wasfrom a single Illumina GA2x lane loaded with 10× the amount of usualtemplate, but generated 100-fold fewer clusters than expected. Severalreasons may explain this inefficiency, including: (a) Inefficientgeneration of properly tailed molecules: these approaches (FIG. 21) maybe significantly less than 100% efficient in their conversion of targetmaterial to appropriately adapted molecules, and require furtheroptimization; (b)

Inefficient Capture of 3′ Tailed dsDNA Molecules to Flow-Cell Primers:

It is possible that additional manipulations of the flow-cell prior tocluster PCR (e.g. the transposase reaction; a wash including SDS toremove transposase, etc.) remove a substantial fraction of librarymolecules. (c) Failure of first strand synthesis on the flow-cell:Phusion DNA polymerase, which is normally used for first strandsynthesis on the Illumina platform, has a very low strand displacementactivity. Strand displacement during this first cycle is required forthe method but not for conventional sequencing on this platform.Alternatives have shown, for example, that Bst polymerase can besubstituted for Phusion for first strand synthesis on the flow-cell. (d)Transposase loading and/or in situ transposition is inefficient: Even ifthe molecules are hybridizing properly and first strand synthesis issuccessful, it won't form a cluster pair unless it receives at least onetransposase insertion relatively proximal to an end.

Finally, although the data represented in FIG. 22 represents over200,000 reads from a single lane, only a negligible fraction of thesereads came from clusters that had a “paired read” from a neighboringcluster (as in FIG. 13). This problem may be related to the lower thanexpected densities of cluster formation (i.e. inefficient generation ofmolecules with proper tails at both ends, inefficient in situtransposition). Alternatively, this may be consequent to the relativerigidity of double-stranded DNA limiting both ends of a molecule withsingle-stranded tails from hybridizing to the surface.

3.C. Transposase Followed by ssDNA Circularization and MultipleDisplacing, Branching RCA

In another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 24, transposase may be loadedwith discontinuous oligos terminating in 5′ phosphorylated A′, followedby B and the dsDNA transposase recognition sequence. Transpositionfollowed by denaturation will result in ssDNA terminating in a 5′phosphate, A′, B, ME and then genomic DNA. Next, ssDNA circularizationmay be performed and then rolling-circle amplification (RCA) usingflowcell bound A and B primers will result in multiple displacingbranching rolling circle amplification and polony (i.e., polymerasecolony) formation.

In an alternative embodiment, fosmids may be used in place of ssDNAwhich may result in long-range amplification and may allow production of40 kb mate paired libraries.

3.D. Ordered Transposition Using Long ssDNA Backbones for DNA NanoballFormation or Barcode Association

In another embodiment, a circularized ssDNA template may be preparedusing four primers (A, B, C, and D) interspersed with ˜100 bp of fillerDNA sequence and circularized (dsDNA sticky-end circularization,followed by selective digestion of one strand). Rolling-circleamplification (RCA) then results in long ssDNA molecules of repeating A,B, C, and D primer sites with intervening filler DNA sequences.

Next, a set of four differently loaded transposase complexes may bepooled where the first has complementarity to the A sequence andincludes a mid-way cut site, and the other three are complementary tothe B, C, and D sequences. Transpositon into genomic DNA likely allowsfor partial or complete insertions occurring in the A, B, C, and Dorder. After gap repair, the A restriction sites may be digested and themolecules circularized which results in circularized molecules of A,gDNA, B, gDNA, C, gDNA, D, gDNA. These molecules may then be used astemplates in RCA that will generate DNA nanoballs containing 4 adaptorsites.

In an alternative embodiment, the original backbone template may becomprised of an adaptor flanked degenerate barcode with ˜100 bp offiller sequence which is circularized, denatured, and subjected to RCA.The resulting backbone includes many repeats of the original template insuccession. The transposase complexes are loaded with oligos thatterminate in sequence complementary to the adaptors that flank thebarcode where the transposase adaptors will anneal in a padlockformation. Gap repair of the degenerate region allows each transposomebound to any given backbone to have the same barcode. Transpositionresults in adjacent transposition events, likely occurring fromtransposomes of the same barcode, thereby allowing association ofnumerous reads with one original large progenitor molecule.

3.E. Direct Sequencing of Transposon Bubbles Containing Flowcell Primers

In another embodiment, a transposon that forms a “bubble” such as thosedescribed above may be inserted, wherein the bubble within thetransposon includes primers complementary to flowcell bound primers asthe bubble adaptors.

After insertion and subsequent gap repair, these long molecules can bedirectly hybridized to the flowcell either with or without stretching.Some portion of tandem transposons will be A and B′ or A′ and B whichwill be able to form clusters via standard bridge PCR methods. This willallow clusters originating proximal to one another will likely havearisen from the same high molecular weight progenitor molecule.

Alternatively, long molecules of known (to allow for an expecteddistance) or unknown length can have adaptors ligated to both endscontaining a 5′ overhang complementary to one of the flowcell primers.Transposition of a bubble transposon containing the other flowcellprimer followed by gap repair will result in a molecule terminating inthe complement to one flowcell primer and interspersed with the other.Hybridization to the flowcell with or without stretching will allow forthe ends of the molecule to anneal. An initial displacing extension willcopy through the transposon inserted second adaptor and produce thereverse complement. Subsequently, standard bridge PCR can be performedand after sequencing a proportion of proximal clusters will have arisenfrom the terminal ends of the original long molecule.

3.F. Transposomes Assembled on the Flowcell

In another embodimet, a flowcell is reprogrammed to include (1) oligosterminating in the transposase recognition sequence, or (2) bridgeoligos that are hybridized that terminate in the transposase recognitionsequence. The transposase is then added to the loading buffer andallowed to load the flowcell bound oligos.

Genomic DNA is then added to the transposase reaction buffer andwherever a molecule comes in contact with the flowcell, the immobilizedtransposase will attack at multiple positions along its length. After aninitial extension, bridge PCR may be performed on the resultingfragments. Sequencing results in a portion of proximal clusters havingarisen from the same large progenitor molecule.

In an alternative embodiment, long molecules may be added in whichadaptors have been ligated containing one of the primer sequences thatis not part of the flowcell-immobilized transposomes. Posttransposition, one strand may be denatured and removed and the other isable to form clusters. A portion of resulting proximal clustersoriginate from the ends of the same large progenitor molecule.

Example 4 Low-Input Transposase Library Preparation for BisulfiteSequencing

As described above, a transposase-based in vitro shotgun libraryconstruction method (“tagmentation”) that allows for construction ofsequencing libraries from greatly reduced amounts of DNA (FIG. 36 a)(Adey et al. 2010). Briefly, the method utilizes a hyperactivederivative of the Tn5 transposase loaded with discontinuous syntheticoligonucleotides to simultaneously fragment and append adaptors togenomic DNA. The resulting products are subjected to PCR amplificationfollowed by high-throughput sequencing. The increased efficiency ofgenomic DNA conversion to viable amplicons and the greatly reducednumber of steps allows the construction of low-bias, highly complexlibraries from less than 50 nanograms of genomic DNA.

An approach, referred to herein as tn5mC-seq, that retains theadvantages of transposase-based library preparation in the context ofwhole-genome bisulfite sequencing is described herein. Because thetarget of the transposition reaction is double-stranded DNA, whereasbisulfite treatment yields single stranded DNA, the method wasextensively modified such that the tagmentation reaction could takeplace prior to bisulfite treatment (FIG. 36 b). First, the adaptors tobe incorporated were methylated at all cytosine residues to maintaincytosine identity during bisulfite treatment, with the exception of the19 base-pair transposase recognition sequence (in order to minimizedifferential binding during transposome assembly). Second, anoligonucleotide replacement scheme (Grunenwald et al. 2011) was utilizedto ensure that each strand would have adaptors covalently attached toboth ends of the molecule. Specifically, this entails initialtransposition with a single adaptor in which the double-strandedtransposase recognition sequence is truncated to 16 base-pairs (Tm=36°C.), thereby facilitating its post-incorporation removal bydenaturation. A second adaptor is then annealed and the gap repaired,resulting in each strand being covalently flanked by both a 3′ and 5′adaptor. The fragmented, adapted, double-stranded genomic DNA is thensubjected to standard bisulfite treatment for the conversion ofunmethylated cytosine to uracil. This yields single-stranded, convertedDNA that is PCR-amplified and sequenced.

Materials and Methods

tn5mC-seq Library Construction and Sequencing.

Transposome complexes were generated by incubating 2.5 μl of 10 μMtn5mC-A1 (tn5mC-A1top: 5′-GAT [5mC] TA [5mC] A[5mC] G [5mC] [5mC] T[5mC] [5mC] [5mC] T [5mC] G [5mC] G [5mC] [5mC] AT [5mC] AGA GAT GTG TATAAG AGA CAG-3′, IDT (SEQ ID NO:1), annealed to tn5mC-A1bot:5′-[Phos]-CTG TCT CTT ATA CAC A-3′, IDT (SEQ ID NO:2), by incubating 10μl of each oligo at 100 μM and 80 μl of EB (QIAGen) at 95° C. for 2minutes then cooling to RT at 0.1° C./s) with 2.5 μl 100% glycerol and 5μl Ez-Tn5 transposase (Epicentre-Illumina) for 20 minutes at RT.

Genomic DNA prepared from NA20847 cell lines was used at respectiveinput quantities with 4 μl Nextera® HMW Buffer (Epicentre-Illumina),nuclease-free water (Ambion) to 17.5 μl and 2.5 μl prepared tn5mCtransposomes (regardless of the quantity of DNA used). Reactions wereincubated at 55° C. for 8 minutes in a thermocycler followed by SPRIbead cleanup (AMPure) using 36 μl of beads and the recommended protocolwith elution in 14 μl nuclease-free water (Ambion). Adaptor 2 annealingwas then carried out by adding 2 μl of 10× Ampligase Reaction Buffer(Epicentre-Illumina), 2 μl 10× dNTPs (2.5 mM each, Invitrogen), and 2 μl10 μM tn5mC-A2top (IDT) to each reaction and incubating at 50° C. for 2minutes followed by 45° C. for 10 minutes and cooling at 0.1° C./s to37° C. and subsequent incubation for 10 minutes. Gap repair was thenperformed by adding 3 μl of Ampligase at 5 U/μl (Epicentre-Illumina) and1 μl of either T4 DNA Polymerase (tn5mC libraries A-G, NEB) orSulfolobus DNA Polymerase IV (tn5mC libraries H-J, NEB) and additionalincubation at 37° C. for 30 minutes. Reactions were then cleaned upusing SPRI beads (AMPure) according to recommended protocol using 36 μlbeads and elution in 50 μl nuclease-free water (Ambion).

Bisulfite treatment was performed using an EZ DNA Methylation™ Kit(Zymo) according to recommended protocols with a 14 hour 50° C.incubation and 10 μl elution. Eluate was then used as the template forPCR using 12.5 μl Kapa 2G Robust HotStart ReadyMix (Kapa Biosystems), 1μl 10 μM tn5mC-P1 (5′-[Phos]-CTG TCT CTT ATA CAC ATC TCT GAG [5mC] GGG[5mC] TGG [5mC] AAG G [5mC] AGA [5mC][5mC] GAT [5mC]-3′, IDT) (SEQ IDNO:3), 1 μl 10 μM Barcoded P2 (From Adey et. al. (2010)), 0.15 μl 100×SYBR Green (Invitrogen), and 0.35 μl nuclease-free water (Ambion).Thermocycling was carried out on a BioRad Opticon Mini real-time machinewith the following parameters: 5:00@95° C.; (0:15@95° C.; 0:15@62° C.;0:40@72° C.; Plate Read; 0:10@72° C.)×99. Reactions were monitored andremoved from thermocycler as soon as plateau was reached (12-15 cycles).

Sequencing was carried out using either a full or partial lane on anIllumina HiSeq2000 using custom sequencing primers: Read 1: tn5mC-R1(5′-GCC TCC CTC GCG CCA TCA GAG ATG TGT ATA AGA GAT AG-3′, IDT) (SEQ IDNO:4), Index Read: tn5mC-Ix (5′-TTG TTT TTT ATA TAT ATT TCT GAG CGG GCTGGC AAG GC-3′, IDT) (SEQ ID NO:5), Read 2: tn5mC-R2 (5′-GCC TTG CCA GCCCGC TCA GAA ATA TAT ATA AAA AAC AA-3′, IDT) (SEQ ID NO:6). Read lengthswere either single-read at 36 bp with a 9 bp index (SE36, libraries Aand B, not included in table) or 101 bp paired-end with a 9 bp index(PE101, libraries C-J). Libraries were only sequenced on runs that didnot have lanes containing Nextera® libraries as a precaution due to thesimilarity between sequencing primers.

Read Alignment.

The hg19 reference genome was first bisulfite-converted in silico forboth the top (C changed to T, C2T) and bottom (G changed to A, G2A)strands. Prior to alignment reads were first filtered based on the runmetrics, as several libraries were run on lanes in which instrumentvalve failures resulted in poor quality or reads consisting primarily of“N” bases. Next, reads were filtered to contain no more than 3 “N”s inthe first 75 bases and subsequently aligned to both the C2T and G2Astrands using BWA with default parameters. Reads that aligned to bothstrands were removed. Read pairs in which neither aligned to eitherstrand were then pulled and trimmed to 76 bp (except for SE36 runs) andagain aligned to both C2T and G2A strands. For library F, an initialtrimming of 25 bp from the start of read 2 was performed due toinstrument valve failure during those cycles. Duplicate reads (pairssharing the same start positions for both reads 1 and 2) were removedand complexity determined. Reads with an alignment score<10 were thenfiltered out prior to secondary analysis. Total fold coverage wascalculated using the total bases aligned from unique reads over thetotal alignable bases of the genome (slightly below 3 Gb per strand).

5mC Calling.

Methylated cytosines were called using a binomial distribution as inLister et. al. (2009) whereby a probability mass function is calculatedfor each methylation context (CpG, CHG, CHH) using the number of readscovering the position as the number of trials and reads maintainingcytosine status as successes with a probability of success based on thetotal error rates which were determined by the combined non-conversionrate and sequencing error rate. The total error rate was initiallydetermined by unmethylated lambda DNA spike-ins, however we found thatthe error rate estimation from the gap-repair portion of reads (asdescribed in the main text) gave a more comprehensive estimate which wasslightly higher than that of the lambda estimate, therefore to beconservative, we used the highest determined error rate at 0.009. If theprobability was below the value of M, where M*(num. total unmethylatedCpG)<0.01*(num. total methylated CpG), the position was called as beingmethylated, thus enforcing that no more than 1% of positions would bedue to the error rate.

Results

Ultra-Low-Input Transposase-Based WGBS Library Performance.

tn5mC-seq was performed to sequence the methylome of a lymphoblastoidcell line (NA20847) using libraries constructed from 1 nanogram to 200nanograms of input genomic DNA. Each library was barcoded during PCRamplification and subjected to either a spike-in (5%) or majority(80-90%) of a lane of sequencing on an Illumina HiSeq2000 (PE100; v2chemistry). These data are summarized in Table 3, below.

TABLE 3 Summary of tn5mC-seq libraries and sequencing Input PercentPercent Unique Aligned Mean Insert Name DNA (ng) Aligning Unique ReadsSize (bp) tn5mC-C 200 68 93 127,098,152 198 tn5mC-D 50 75 90 133,383,834254 tn5mC-E* 1 12 76 11,181,960 134 tn5mC-F* 10 65 95 118,170,302 168tn5mC-G* 50 61 97 87,294,793 180 tn5mC-H 1 11 78 12,393,357 126tn5mC-I** 10 62 n/a 29,546,077 n/a tn5mC-J 50 71 95 132,144,644 196TOTAL 651,213,119 *Valve failures in Read 2 resulted in extensive readtrimming (50-70 bp) **Complete valve failure on Read 2.

Raw reads were initially filtered for instrument valve failures atspecific locations of reads and then removal of reads containing overthree Ns or extremely low quality bases (phred score<=2) in the first 50bases. Alignment was then performed using BWA (Li and Durbin 2009) to insilico converted top and bottom strand references of hg19 (GRC37)followed by trimming and re-alignment. Duplicate reads were identifiedand removed according to their start position and insert size. Thepercentage of post-filtering reads that align for each library is shown,as is the percentage of these that are non-duplicates.

Reads were aligned to an in silico converted hg19 (GRC37) to both thetop (C=>T) and bottom (G=>A) strands using BWA (Li and Durbin 2009)followed by read trimming of unmapped reads and secondary alignmentusing the same parameters. Because unmethylated nucleotides areincorporated during the gap-repair step (first 9 base-pairs of thesecond read and last 9 base-pairs before the adaptor as determined byinsert size on the first read), the gap-repair regions must be excludedfrom methylation analysis. However, these bases also serve as aninternal control for the conversion rate of the bisulfite treatment.This was found to be >99% for all libraries, and this was independentlyconfirmed using unmethylated lambda DNA spike-ins to two libraries.

For each library constructed using ≦10 nanograms of genomic DNA, over100 million aligned reads were obtained (60-75% of total filtered reads;see Methods) of high complexity (90-97% non-duplicates). Despite thesignificantly reduced performance of libraries prepared from 1 nanogram,approximately 12 million reads were still aligned and the library was ofreasonable complexity (78% non-duplicates). Post-alignment reads weremerged and quality filtered for a total of 51.7 gigabases of aligned,unique sequence. The average read depth was 8.6× per strand with >96% ofCpG and >98% of non-CpG cytosines covered genome-wide (FIG. 36 c).

Lymphoblastoid Cell Line Methylation.

Approximately 46 million 5mC positions (1% FDR; see Methods) weredetected, accounting for 4.2% of total cytosines with coverage. Themajority of methylation observed was in the CpG context (97.1%), and theglobal CpG methylation level was 69.1%. This level is similar to that ofthe fetal fibroblast cell line IMR90 sequenced by Lister and colleagues(Lister et al. 2009) (67.7%), and consistent with the observation thatCpG methylation levels are reduced in differentiated cell types.Additionally, CHG and CHH methylation levels were substantially lowerthan in ES cells, at 0.36% and 0.37% respectively, again consistent withthe differentiated cell type. On the chromosome scale, the methylationwas greater in sub-telomeric regions (FIG. 36 d), as expected by themiRNA-mediated pathways that act to control telomere length (Benetti etal. 2008). An analysis of functionally annotated genic regions revealeda sharp decrease in CpG methylation through the promoter region followedby a minor increase in the 5′UTR and then elevated levels of methylationthroughout the gene body, particularly at introns (FIG. 36 e,f),consistent with previously described CpG methylation profiles (Lister etal. 2009).

Discussion

tn5mC-seq was developed as a novel method for rapidly preparing complex,shotgun bisulfite sequencing libraries for WGBS. In brief, the methodutilizes a hyperactive Tn5 transposase derivative to fragment genomicDNA and append adaptors in a single step, as previously characterizedfor the construction of DNA-seq libraries (Adey et al. 2010). In orderfor library molecules to withstand bisulfite treatment, the adaptors aremethylated at all cytosine residues and an oligonucleotide replacementstrategy is employed to make each single-strand covalently flanked byadaptors. The high efficiency of the transposase and overall reductionin loss-associated steps permits construction of high quality bisulfitesequencing libraries from as little as 10 ng as well as useful sequencefrom 1 ng of input DNA.

These results illustrate how derivatives of the transposase-based methodfor DNA-Seq library preparation enable important applications ofnext-generation sequencing where its advantages are perhaps even morerelevant. The ability to generate such libraries from very low amountsof input genomic DNA substantially improves the practicality of wholemethylome sequencing, and removes an important advantage of lesscomprehensive methods such as RRBS (Meissner et al. 2005; Harris et al.2010). Specifically, low-input WGBS with tn5mC-seq may make possible thecomprehensive interrogation of methylation in many contexts where DNAquantity is a bottleneck, e.g. developing anatomical structures,microdissected tissues, or pathologies such as cancer, where theepigenetic landscape is of interest but tissue quantity limitsresolution.

Example 5 Identifying Distant Regulatory Sites and Measuring ChromosomeConformation

Recent studies have shown the importance and complexity of physicalinteractions between genetic elements within a genome. Measuring theseinteractions can help to explain how distant cis and trans regulatoryDNA plays a role in gene regulation (including which genes are affectedby which enhancers, how chromosomes are arrayed within a cell, howcertain transcription factors like AR and ER bind and influence geneexpression). It can also provide clues to the formation of therearrangements and inversions involved in cancer and other geneticdiseases.

Current methods of assaying physical interactions using high throughputsequencing include chromatin interaction analysis using paired end tagsequencing (ChIA-PET; interactions of transcription factor-bindingsites) and Hi-C (method of producing maps of genome). Both approacheshave limitations that can be attributed to the low efficiency andspecificity of intramolecular ligation, which the methods use to pairdistant regions of DNA together for sequencing. Such a ligation steprequires large amounts of input DNA (100+ ug) and can result intechnical artifacts in which fragments of DNA are ligated to each othereven when they are not typically associated with each other.

These problems are important when trying to understand the genomicarchitecture of a small population of cells, like embryonic stem cellsand cancer cells. It also means that any inferences of DNA interactionsresulting from transcription factor binding that are measured are onaverage of extremely large cell populations (e.g., 10⁸ cells or ˜500micrograms of DNA). Given that different cells can have differentgenomic architectures or patterns of transction factor binding, anapproach that requires less starting DNA may be useful.

Therefore, methods for measuring DNA-DNA and DNA-protein interactionswithin smaller populations of cells are provided below. Such methods usethe “infinipair” technology (described in example 3A above) to directlysequence multiple fragments off of immunoprecipitated DNA that has beencrosslinked (FIG. 28). These methods differ from the CHIA-PET and Hi-Cmethods because they directly assay crosslinked fragments of DNA withoutthe extra step of intramolecular ligation.

5.A. Identification of Distant Regulatory Binding Sites

In one embodiment, modifications of the technology described in example3A (referred to herein as the “inifinpair” technology) may be used toidentify interactions between transcription factor (TF) binding sites,such as, for example, those found on the Estrogen receptor. As shown inFIG. 29, approximately 10⁴ cells are induced with hormone (˜10 ng),followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation of the cells. Next, thechromatin fibers are broken by cross-linking the cells with 1%formaldehyde followed by sonication. An ER/AR/receptor specific antibodyis then used to enrich binding chromatin fragments.

Next, end repair is performed using T4 polymerase to ligate to A+Badaptors. No phosphorylation, ligation of half linkers or dilution ofligation is necessary in this method. The infinipair technology is thenused to generate clusters corresponding to immunoprecipitated complexes.Neighboring clusters are paired together to create a list ofinteractions between chromosomal positions.

To narrow down the list of putative interactions, the data collected isthen intersected with CHIP-Seq information, which provides informationon known binding sites of transcription factors. Information frommultiple libraries is overlapped to increase confidence in calledinteractions. The structure of the chromatin interactions ischaracterized using this data, and is also used to link regulatoryregions to DNA (i.e link genes to enhancers).

Some of the benefits of using this method may include, but are notlimited to, (1) Higher accuracy in pairing interactions—(nointer-fragment ligation), (2) Lower input DNA required, resulting inmore applications may be used (i.e., interactions within smaller sets ofsamples (ES cells/cancer cells/smaller groups of healthy cells) may beidentified, (3) Easier workflow—no dilute ligations, no PCR, no MmeIdigestions etc., and (4) Less sequencing required.

5.B. Inferring Chromosome Conformation

In another embodiment, infinipair technology is used to model chromosomeconformation in small numbers of cells. Previous methods such as theHi-C method required a larger number of cells (˜10⁷ cells; ˜50 ug DNA).As shown in FIG. 30, genomic DNA is cross linked. The cells are lysedusing a homogenizer and the chromatin is then spun down. Chromatinproteins are removed by incubating in 1% SDS followed by Triton X-100.Chromatin is then digested by incubating in HindIII overnight.

Chromatin is purified using columns with beads directed against ananti-chromatin antibody. A and B adaptors are then ligated to DNAfragments without the need to biotinylate. Next, the infinipairtechnology is used to generate inifinipair clusters corresponding tocomplexes. Neighboring clusters are paired together to create a list ofinteractions between chromosomal positions. The information generated isthen used to generate 3 dimensional models and to better understand theconformation of specific cell types.

Example 6 Integration of Short-Range, Mid-Range and Long-RangeContiguity for a More Cost-Effective Sequencing Method

The focus of this Example includes 1) integrating methods developed inExamples 1-3 for the high-quality de novo assembly of the mouse genome;2) integrating these same methods for the haplotype-resolvedresequencing of a human genome; and 3) extending compatibility to othernext-generation sequencing paradigms.

6.A. Cost Analysis and the Path to the $1,000 Mark

An important aspect of the methods described herein is that the costsare almost entirely dependent on the costs of the sequencing platformwith which they are integrated. If “X” is the cost of genomeresequencing, then the cost the methods described herein can beabstracted as “a+bX”, where “a” is the fixed cost per sample ofcapturing contiguity information (e.g. the cost of an in situtransposition reaction), and “b” is the proportion of sequencingrequired to recover that information relative to genome resequencing.Estimates for “a” are low, i.e. less than $30 per method. This isbecause reactions such as in situ transposition and PCR manipulategenomic DNA en masse within single reagent volumes. Furthermore,reagents such as degenerate oligonucleotides and microfluidic devicesare relatively inexpensive, and their costs can be amortized over manyuses. The value of “b” is more difficult to predict, and is dependent onthe extent of success in implementing and optimizing each method.However, it is noted that the barcodes themselves are short as comparedto the primary reads with which they are in cis (e.g. SE25 barcodeversus PE76 primary).

Sequencing costs associated with each of the following application ofthe methods described herein should be roughly the same as the cost of40× resequencing of a mammalian genome with the same platform, i.e.“b≈1”. As demonstrated by the original assemblies of the mouse and humangenomes, it is possible to achieve a high quality de novo assembly of amammalian genome with substantially less sampling than is currently usedfor genome resequencing, provided that sufficient contiguity informationis also obtained.

6.B. De Novo Assembly of the Mouse Genome

Using the contiguity information obtained from the methods describedabove, a high-quality de novo assembly of a mammalian genome may beobtained de novo To accomplish this, existing tools for eitherconventional or ‘next-generation’ de novo assembly (Schatz et al. 2010)will be repurposed and applied to these data, and additional softwarewill be developed as necessary. To minimize costs without significantlycompromising quality, the optimal mix of contiguity mapping methods(i.e. at different scales) will be determined. This may require, forexample, oversampling the genome with each contiguity mapping method,and then downsampling to include different proportions of data from eachmethod and evaluating the impact on the quality of de novo assembly.Focusing on the de novo assembly of the mouse genome as a test case, thecontiguity of the original assembly (i.e. contig N50 of 24.8 Kb;supercontig N50 of 16.9 Mb) will be exceeded with the same amount ofdata as is required for 40× resequencing (2.5 Gb×40=˜100 Gb), i.e.“b≈1”. Initially, sequencing costs will predominate, i.e. “bX>>a”, buteven as this changes the total costs of preparatory reactions (“a”)should be kept to <$100, even if all scales of contiguity mappingmethods are used (i.e. Short-Range, Mid-Range and Long-RangeContiguity).

6.C. Haplotype Resolved Resequencing of a Human Genome

Preliminary data (2.D) shows that a modest amount of contiguityinformation may provide extensive haplotype resolving power. For thisdata, the software required for haplotype-resolved genome resequencinghas been developed or will be developed. Additionally, algorithms willbe developed to discover SNPs resolve haplotypes using the same data, asaccurately calling haploid genotypes requires less than half as muchsequencing as calling diploid genotypes. Contiguity mapping methods willbe integrated to resequence and simultaneously haplotype resolve a humangenome, with a target of >95% coverage in haplotype-resolved blocks withan N50 of at least 1 Mb while maintaining >99.5% concordance with HapMapdata at D′>0.90. As with de novo assembly of the mouse genome, this maybe achieved with the same amount of sequencing as would be required for40× haplotype-blind resequencing of the human genome (3 Gb×40=˜120 Gb),i.e. “b≈1”.

6.D. Extending the Compatibility of Contiguity Mapping Methods to OtherSequencing Paradigms

Although the methods for capturing contiguity information as describedherein are directed to being used with the sequencing technologies withwhich they are integrated, such methods may be developed for othersequencing technologies and with other sequencing platforms. Theseinclude other cyclic-array platforms (e.g. Polonator, SOLiD), as well asemerging paradigms such as nanopore sequencing.

REFERENCES

The references, patents and published patent applications listed below,and all references cited in the specification above are herebyincorporated by reference in their entirety, as if fully set forthherein.

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1-23. (canceled)
 24. A method for capturing contiguity informationcomprising: treating a target DNA sequence with a transposase resultingin one or more fragmentation or insertion events; adding or insertingone or more recognition sequences to the target DNA sequence; sequencingthe treated DNA; and capturing contiguity information by identifyingtarget DNA sequences or recognition sequences having a shared property.25. The method of claim 24, wherein the one or more recognitionsequences are added or inserted during the transposase treatment. 26.The method of claim 24, wherein the one or more recognition sequencesare added or inserted during a subsequent amplification.
 27. The methodof claim 24, wherein the one or more fragmentation or insertion eventsresults in generation of a library of target nucleic acid moleculesderived from the target DNA.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the oneor more recognition sequences are one or more barcodes added to the endof each target nucleic acid molecule that flank the fragmentation orinsertion events.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the sharedproperty of the one or more barcodes is an identical or complementarybarcode sequence.
 30. The method of claim 24, wherein the target DNAsequence comprises a set of target DNA fragments.
 31. The method ofclaim 30, further comprising compartmentalizing the target DNA fragmentswith emulsions or dilutions, generating two or more compartments oftarget DNA fragments prior to or after treating with the transposase.32. The method of claim 31, wherein the one or more recognitionsequences are one or more compartment-specific barcodes, each of whichcorresponds to the one or more compartments generated in thecompartmentalizing step.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the sharedproperty of the one or more primer sequences is an identicalcompartment-specific barcode.
 34. The method of claim 32, furthercomprising performing nucleic acid amplification using primers bearingcompartment-specific barcodes.
 35. The method of claim 24, wherein theone or more recognition sequences is one or more adaptor sequences thatmodify the ends of the target DNA sequence, or insert within the targetDNA sequence.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the one or moreadaptor sequences are complementary to one or more surface-boundprimers.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the transposase is bound toa nucleic acid that is complementary to a second surface-bound primer.38. The method of claim 36, further comprising hybridizing the one ormore adaptor sequences to the one or more surface bound primers.
 39. Themethod of claim 38, wherein the shared property is a constrainedphysical location.
 40. The method of claim 24, wherein the transposaseis bound to a surface-bound recognition sequence to form a surface-boundtransposase complex.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the sharedproperty is a constrained physical location.
 42. The method of claim 40,wherein treating the target DNA sequence comprises exposing a pluralityof surface-bound transposase complexes to the target DNA sequence.
 43. Amethod of bisulfite sequencing comprising: a) performing in vitrotransposition into target DNA molecules with transposase complexes, eachtransposase complex comprising a double stranded DNA transposaserecognition sequence and a single stranded DNA adaptor overhang havingmethylated cytosine (C) residues b) subjecting transposed target DNAmolecules to bisulfite treatment; c) performing nucleic acidamplification d) sequencing the resulting nucleic acid library
 44. Themethod of claim 43, further comprising incorporating a second adaptor tonucleic acid fragments derived from target DNA, after step (a) andbefore step (b), wherein the second adaptor is designed to facilitatenucleic acid amplification in step (c).
 45. The method of claim 43,further comprising incorporating a second adaptor to nucleic acidfragments derived from target DNA, after step (b) and before step (c),wherein the second adaptor is designed to facilitate nucleic acidamplification in step (c).
 46. A method for inferring chromosomeconformation comprising: a) cross-linking DNA within cells; b) isolatingcross-linked DNA from cells; c) fragmenting the cross-linked DNA; d)end-modifying fragmented, cross-linked DNA molecules with an adaptorthat is complementary to or that corresponds to a first surface-boundprimer; e) hybridizing ends of the fragmented, end-modified target DNAmolecules to the first surface-bound primer; f) performing transpositionwith non-surface-bound transposase complexes, each non-surface-boundtransposase complex comprising a DNA transposase and one or moresequences corresponding to a second surface-bound primer; g) performingcluster amplification to produce clusters of clonally derived nucleicacids; h) sequencing clusters of clonally derived nucleic acids; and i)determining physical interactions between chromosomal positions byparing neighboring clusters together.
 47. The method of claim 46,wherein the isolated cross-linked DNA are part of cross-linkedDNA-protein complexes.
 48. The method of claim 47, further comprisingenriching for one or more specific cross-linked DNA-protein complexes byimmunoprecipitation after step (c) and before step (d).